INGREDIENTS

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Dairy

What is heavy cream? What is creme fraiche? There are a number of recipes that require this and we would like to know what it is.
Barbara J., Groton, NY

Heavy cream is simply a whipping cream that has a butterfat content which ranges between 36 percent to 40 percent (if you're using French recipes they might refer to this as creme fleurette). Creme fraiche is a slightly matured or fermented heavy cream. It possesses a slightly tangy, nutty flavor, a thicker texture and doesn't curdle when boiled.

Is it possible to find liederkrantz cheese anymore? I would like to order some if it is available, but have not been able to find it.
Norm R., Trotwood, OH

Liederkrantz cheese is a semi-soft aromatic cows milk cheese created by New York cheese maker, Emil Frey, in 1882. This yummy cheese is most commonly enjoyed with beer, dark bread and onions. Borden Foods purchased the trademark and is its sole producer.

What is Stilton? On one episode of The Two Fat Ladies, Clarissa made an easy onion soup with Stilton. Is this something you can only get in England? If so, is there a U.S. substitute?
Angela D., Chicago, IL

Stilton is a fine English blue cheese made from whole cow's milk. Considered one of the world's best cheeses, Stilton is firm and cream-colored, uniformly mottled with bluish veins, and has a natural brushed rind. Stilton acquired its name in the18th century because it was first sold the small English village of Stilton in Hungtingdonshire. Today, it is made in parts of Leicestershire, Derbyshire, and Nottinghamshire. Stilton is widely available in the United States at fine cheese shops and gourmet grocers. Stilton is farm-made and is at its best from autumn to spring. Stilton is allowed to ripen for 4 to 6 months, during which time it is skewered numerous times to encourage the growth of penicillium roqueforti mold (also present in Roquefort cheese). This process creates a pale yellow interior with blue-green veins. The texture is rich and creamy but slightly crumbly. Stilton's has a mellow cheddar-like quality with the pungency of blue cheese. In addition to this better known mature version, there is also a young white Stilton that is marketed before the colored veins develop. The white Stilton has a mild, slightly sour flavor. Stilton cheese is best eaten by itself with a glass of port or a full bodied dry red wine.

What is creme fraiche?
Molly G., address unknown

Creme Fraiche is a matured, thickened cream with a tangy flavor and a rich texture. In France, Creme fraiche is a specialty and can be found in varying thicknesses from sour-cream to almost as solid as room temperature margarine. Because cream is unpasteurized in France the thickness comes about naturally due to the bacteria. In the U.S., the creme fraiche you find in gourmet markets is a very expensive, pasteurized facsimile. However, it is easy to make at home. Simply combine1 cup whipping cream and 2 tablespoons buttermilk in a glass container. Cover and let stand at room temp. from 8 to 24 hours, or until very thick. Stir well, cover and refrigerate for up to 10 days. Creme fraiche is wonderful spooned over fresh fruit or warm cobblers and crisps, and is an easy addition to sauces and soups because it can be boiled without curdling.

I am a southern Maryland resident with no idea how to obtain fresh mozzarella curd (Essence of Emeril #EE2410) to make my own fresh mozzarella. Can you help?
John M., MD

I first called the Mozzarella Co. in Dallas Texas to find out if they knew where to find mozzarella curd. I was told that they made their own fresh curd that they turn directly into cheese and that pre-made curd is bought mostly by restaurants in large 40 pound quantities, not practical for the home chef. However, they knew of a company called The New England Cheesemaking Supply Co. which sells the direct set culture that one can put in milk to make the curd. It consists of a starter and a rennet (the thickenening agent). The New England Cheesemaking Supply Co. mozzarella making kit sells for $19.95 and contains four recipes plus everything you need to make the cheese other than the milk. You can obtain the kit by calling (413) 628-3808, and if you should have further questions, visit their website at www.cheesemaking.com.

What ingredient would you use to help keep whipped cream from going flat? The whipped cream in the professional setting seems more substantial. Please help.
Marlisa Z., Oceanside, CA

Heavy cream whipped is one of my favorite things to eat as well. It really depends on for what you're using the whipped cream. If you're preparing a whipped topping for topping a piece of pie or to top an ice cream sundae, the cream, metal bowl and beaters should be very cold, and should be whipped at the last minute to soft peaks with confectioners sugar to taste.

If you want to frost a cake with whipped cream use the same method above and be sure not to overwhip before you begin to frost. Whipped cream turns into butter very quickly if you overwhip it. It will also separate, the curd from the whey.

If you want to serve a molded dessert, like a Bavarian Cream, you would add unflavored gelatin. Which does create a much stronger product.

Where can I buy pasteurized egg yolks? I don't know if the whites and whole eggs can be purchased as such, but if they can, please tell me where I can obtain them.
Jim B., Branford, CT

Egg products refers to convenience forms of eggs obtained by breaking and processing shell eggs. All egg products include whole eggs, egg whites and egg yolks in refrigerated liquid, frozen and dried form, as well as specialty products such as quiche mixes, scrambled egg mixes, hard cooked eggs and many others. Federal regulations require that all egg products be pasteurized. They are becoming more readily available on the retail market, but most of the time are marketed in containers of various sizes for foodservice use. In a well stocked professional bakery you would find half gallon size containers of both pasteurized frozen egg whites and yolks.

The products, available in most supermarkets, are Egg Beaters, Simply Eggs etc. These are primarily egg whites with added coloring, vitamins and minerals. Most egg substitutes are fat free but some add a bit of oil to mimic the fat in yolks. Formulas also tend to include vegetable gums and emulsifiers to give them a more egg-like texture and help make the products easier to use in cooking and baking. Nonfat dry milk or natural and artificial flavors are sometimes used as well.

Frankly, I vote for the plain old egg.

What is asiago cheese?
Robert A., Oak Ridge, TN

Asiago cheese is a semi-firm Cheese from Italy. Originally, this cheese was made from ewe's milk in the village of Asiago in the province of Vicenza, but it is now made from whole or part-skim cow's milk. It comes in small wheels with glossy rinds, and is yellow inside with many small holes. Asiago is rich and nutty in flavor and used as a table cheese when young; when matured for 6 months or more it hardens and may be grated.

Is fromage frais a type of cream cheese? If so, how does it differ and if not, what exactly is it?
Sheree G., Grand Island, NE

Fromage frais means fresh cheese. It is not a certain kind of cheese, just a name given to a number of very young fresh cheeses. There are quite a number of French fromage frais. Few of these cheeses reach the United States as they are too fragile and perishable. The two that are imported by the US are Gervais, which is a double cream shipped in 2 oz. packages and Petit Suisse, also a double cream which must be frozen before it is shipped because of its very fragile nature. Otherwise you have to go to France to sample these somewhat more sour than our American sour cream cheeses. Many of them are served with more cream and sugar as a dessert. Fresh Neufchatel is the French version of our cream cheese. The difference here is the addition of gum arabic, a preservative, in the American version. In general, fresh cheeses from France are made to be eaten rather quickly and are just made with soured cream.

What is the difference between "heavy cream", "whipping cream", and "light cream"? I have not been able to locate "light cream" any where--could this be what is called "half & half"?
Ron M. Hauppauge, NY

Creams are categorized by their percentage of milk fat. Heavy cream must contain a milk fat content of between 36 and 40 percent; light whipping cream, 30 to 36 percent; and light cream (also called coffee or table cream) 18 to 30 percent. Half and half is a mixture of equal parts milk and cream, and is 10 to 12 percent milk fat. Neither half-and-half nor light cream can be whipped. Light whipping cream is the form most commonly available and can be used as a substitute for light cream, as can half and half (depending on the desired richness).

A recipe from a friend called for Farmer's Cheese. Could you tell me what it is and where I can get it?
Steve S., Lancaster, CA

Farmer's cheese is a fresh cheese which is a form of cottage cheese with the liquid pressed out. It is sliceable and also can be crumbled.

You can buy it from specialty food shops.

I have [heard] a new term applied to [the] type of fat found in processed foods. An example is margarine. The label lists all of the saturated and unsaturated fat. I have heard the term "trans fat". What is this and where can I go for more information? My understanding is that "trans fat" is bad for us and should be avoided.
Larry A., OR

The term you have heard refers to trans fatty acids. Trans fatty acids can be found in small amounts in nature, although they are created in more substantial amounts when oil is hydrogenated to make margarine. During the procedure, extra hydrogen atoms are pumped into unsaturated fat. This can give margarine a consistency like butter and make a lighter, fluffier shortening. Any food with "hydrogenated oils" on the label contains them and they can frequently be found in commercially baked cakes, cookies, muffins and pastries. Another source for trans fats is fast food such as burgers, fries and hash browns which may have been cooked in hydrogenated fats.

Concern about trans fats grew in 1990 when two Dutch scientists reported that margarine increased the risk of coronary heart disease. Some researchers believe that trans fatty acids decrease the good (HDL) cholesterol and increase the bad LDLs which accelerates the formation of artery-clogging plaques. A more recent report from Harvard estimates that each year there are 30,000 deaths from heart disease due to trans fatty acids. Other scientists argue that the evidence is inconclusive and that margarine is no worse than butter. In any case, it would be advisable to cut down on all fats, period, and cook with olive, canola or other largely unsaturated oils when necessary.

You showed and mentioned Reblochon cheese on Emeril Live recently. I haven't seen it in the USA since the FDA banned the import of raw milk cheeses and the makers insisted that the cheese had to be made with milk still warm from the cow. Please let me know where I can get this cheese and if it's made the same way?

Joseph C., Macomb, IL

I called cheese expert Ed Edleman at Ideal Cheese in New York City and he says that first you can bring individual cheeses over from Europe if it is for your own consumption. Further he sells Reblochon from Savoie and it is still made in the old fashioned raw milk manner. You can call him to order it by calling 800-382-0109.

What is mascarpone and where can I find it?
Debra P.

Mascarpone is a double cream cow's milk cheese imported from Italy. It tastes like the British clotted cream or a bit like a slightly soured butter. You can purchase it only in sophisticated gourmet stores which import fresh ingredients from Italy.

What should I substitute for cream in pasta sauces?
Valerie C., Chicago, IL

To get the "creamy" feel on your palate you can add evaporated milk, whole or skim. Yogurt can be added but will bring a tangy "sour" flavor to your sauce you might not want and can curdle over heat. Regular milk, whole or low fat, does not add much flavor nor creaminess to a sauce.

Can butter go bad and if yes, how can you tell?
Rita L., Laguna Niguel, California

All butter, whether salted or sweet can go rancid and it is easy to tell because it tastes rancid and often smells rancid as well.

Why does my Brie smell of ammonia?
Gregory F., Wallingford, PA.

Any hint of ammonia means the cheese is overaged. Try buying your cheeses from a store where you know there is a high turnover. Supermarkets are fine for fresh cheeses such as ricotta or cottage cheese because the stock sells rapidly. However, for ripened cheeses like Brie try shopping at a cheese or specialty gourmet store whose staff is knowledgeable about selecting and caring for cheese. When buying good cheeses, don't buy them precut. Make sure the store cuts the portion you want from a whole wheel of cheese.

Can I substitute jumbo for large eggs?
No name, no address

If you are making scrambled, fried or poached eggs, you can use different sized eggs interchangeably, but when you are baking, don't substitute jumbo for large eggs. In baking, the proportion of liquid to solids, fat and other ingredients is key to the outcome of the recipe. Twelve jumbo eggs weighs 30 ounces whereas 12 large eggs weighs only 21 ounces. You can understand that if you were to add 6 jumbo eggs for example instead of 6 large ones, you would throw off the ratio and proportion of ingredients and more likely than not, your recipe would not come out.

What is lemon curd and where can we find it?
Keith B., Brookhaven, PA

Lemon curd is this marvelous egg, butter, sugar and lemon oil custard-like mixture which is available in jars. The best brand is the British Wilkin & Sons lemon curd. You'll find it in a fine food shop stored alongside the jams, jellies and preserves. Once opened, store it in the fridge. I think I did a Monday to Friday show using lemon curd.

I made chocolate bunnies in molds and they turned white. Did I do something wrong?
Carol F. Tujunga, CA

Unfortunately your chocolate "bloomed". What happens to chocolate after you melt it, is that unless it is brought back down to exactly 92 degrees when the cocoa butter and chocolate liquor form a perfect homogeneous emulsion, when it rehardens, the cocoa butter separates out from the chocolate liquor and that whitening and bloom occur. When you melt your chocolate, before pouring it into molds, turn it out onto a marble or some clean surface. With a spatula keep on working it back and form until it begins to cool. If you don't have a chocolate thermometer, then take a dab of chocolate and lift it under your lower lip. If the chocolate feels at room temperature, not hot nor cool, it is mostly likely at the right temperature and can be poured into your molds. Sometimes too, however, refrigerating the chocolate causes it to bloom! The only bright side is that this discoloration does not have any effect on the flavor of the chocolate.

What does it mean to beat eggs to the "ribbon" stage?
Ivy G.

Usually the eggs are beaten with sugar until they form that stage. Basically this means that when you are beating the eggs and sugar together and for a while, they turn a lighter color and when you stop beating and lift the eggs up, they fall back onto themselves in thin strands which look a little bit like ribbons. This usually means that the sugar has been sufficiently dissolved into the eggs and enough air has been beaten in.

What is clarified butter?
Barbara M. New York, NY

I think there's lots of confusion out there about what is clarified butter. Clarified butter is butter which has been slowly heated up in order to separate the white milk solids (which burn at high heat) from the butter fat. The milk solids (which sink to the bottom of the pan) are discarded and the pure butter fat (clarified butter) which remains is saved for frying and sauteeing. CLARIFYING BUTTER IS NOT A METHOD USED TO LOWER THE FAT CONTENT OF BUTTER. Chefs clarify butter because it has a higher smoking point and they can fry or saute in it without its burning. If lower fat content is what you are after, use non-stick skillets which require less fat, use vegetable oil, which is unsaturated, and use the vegetable oil in minimum quantities. If you yearn for the flavor of butter, then add a tiny pat of regular butter at the end of cooking time.

Meat, Game, Fish & Poultry

We are planning a trip to New Orleans. When are crawfish in season?
Irving Kane, Palmbeach,  Fla.

According to Emeril, crawfish season is generally from January to June, but sometimes weather permits harvesting almost year-round.

I really love the tomalley found in lobsters and the eggs found inside blue crabs. Is there any way to tell just by looking at the outside of the lobster if it is full of tomalley or if a blue crab is heavy with eggs?

Bernie B., Chicago, IL

I think from your description it is the coral or eggs in the female lobster that you prefer. The tomalley is the green liver found in both male and female lobsters and it is also considered a delicacy. Since it is only the female lobsters and crabs that contain eggs it is necessary to purchase females. The easiest thing to do is to ask your fish monger to identify the females.

To select female lobsters yourself, look for the fin-like appendages on the underside, where the lobster's tail and body meet. In the female these "fins" are soft and leathery whereas on the males they are hard. With respect to crabs, the female has a wider fringed apron, the part that curls along the rear of its underside, than does the male.

I would like to know where I can buy venison (or deer meat) ?

Vernon K., Riverside, CA

Venison, though commonly thought of as deer meat, is a term that includes the meat of any member of the deer family, including the elk, moose, reindeer, caribou, antelope, red tailed deer, white tailed deer and mule deer. Venison is typically a dark red color with very little intra-muscular fat or marbling, a firm, dense, velvety texture, mild aroma and sweet, herbal, nutty flavor. Significant cuts include the loin, leg, rack and saddle. The tenderness of a particular cut of meat from large game animals is similar to the corresponding cut of beef and pork. In general, wild game is less tender than meat from domestic animals because wild animals get more exercise and are therefore leaner. Fat is generally rank tasting and should be removed. For maximum tenderness, most game should be cooked slowly and not overdone. It can be cooked by braising or roasted (with an effort to ensure maximum moistness through basting or larding). The age of the animal when killed also determines the meats tenderness.

What is seared tournedos?
Maureen B., New York, NY

A tournedo is a beef steak cut from the tenderloin, measuring 3/4 to 1 inch thick and 2 to 2 1/2 inches in diameter. Because they tend to be very lean, tournedos are often wrapped in pork fat or bacon prior to grilling or broiling. The classic way to serve them is on fried bread rounds and topped with a sauce such as mushroom sauce. Searing is a method of browning meat quickly by subjecting it to very high heat in a skillet, under a broiler or in a very hot oven. the object of searing is to seal in the meat's juices.

What is foie gras?
Fonda H., no address

A specialty of the Alsace and the Perigord regions of France, foie gras is goose or duck liver that has been enlarged by fattening the bird over a period of about 4 to 5 months. In Roman times, this was done by force-feeding figs to geese, but these days the birds are fattened with corn. Truffle and aspic are traditional accompaniments to foie gras, as well as thinly sliced pieces of toast. However in recent years nouvelle cuisine has paired it with such things as green leeks, scallops and pumpkin. Foie gras is very expensive and can be found in gourmet stores or through mail order companies. At the Food Network, we use one of the most well known American sources for foie gras, D'Artagnan. They can be reached by contacting: D'Artagnan, Inc., 399-419 St. Paul Ave., Jersey City, NJ 07306, 800-327-8246.

We watch alot of cooking shows and we see alot of recipes calling for something that sounds like andouille and sha-rees. What are they and where can we find them?
Betty K., Wind Gap, PA

Andouille is a sausage made from pork chitterlings and tripe. French in origin, it is spicy, heavily smoked, and found often in cajun cooking. Traditionally, andouille is used in specialties like jambalaya and gumbo. I believe the second ingredient that you refer to may be chorizo [chor-EE-soh]. Chorizo is a coarsely ground pork sausage flavored with garlic, chili powder, and other spices. Chorizo is used in Mexican and Spanish cooking. Both use pork, but in the Spanish version the pork is smoked. When cooking with chorizo, remove the casing and crumble the sausage before cooking. Ask your local butcher if he carries them, or where you can find them in your neighborhood.

What is Certified Pork and where can I buy it?
Donna T., Portola Valley, CA

Certified pork is pork that has undergone a freezing treatment to eliminate parasites. This process is government regulated. The pork goes in a deep freeze 20 degrees below zero for 20-25 days depending on the inspector, thickness of meat, and packaging. Certified pork is not found in butcher stores, however restaurant purveyors carry it regularly.

Why is my lobster meat coming out tough after I boil the lobster alive?
Heather K. Tampa, FL

Tough lobster...seems that you may be over-cooking them. Try boiling the lobsters in vegetable broth or a light fish stock for 6 to 8 minutes. After 3 to 4 minutes re-distribute the lobster for more even cooking.

What is the traditional way to eat caviar?
Cathy A., San Jose, CA

Caviar consists of sturgeon's eggs that have been salted and allowed to mature. Sold fresh or pasteurized, caviar comes in three main varieties. Beluga is the most expensive and produced by the largest species, the eggs are dark grey, firm, heavy and well separated. Ossetra is characterized by smaller, more even grains which are golden yellow to brown and oily, it is considered by many to be the best. Sevruga is the least expensive and is produced by smaller sturgeon which are more prolific and produce very small light to dark grey eggs.

Though caviar is produced primarily in Russia and Iran today, American caviar has become increasingly popular. The traditional way to eat caviar is served in a container over crushed ice with blinis (savory pancakes made from a light batter) and sour cream or creme fraiche and chilled vodka. Other alternatives include, serving with lightly buttered toast, capers, egg (hard-boiled, yellow and whites separated then finely diced), and finely chopped onion.

I would like some information on Monkfish. How can I cook it and what is it similar to?
Deborah A., Philadelphia, PA

Monkfish or Angler fish is named for the way it lures it's prey. A bottom dweller, it has a long filament which grows from its head and it twitches and resembles a worm. When the prey fish attacks the "worm", it's engulfed by the huge mouth of the Monkfish (also known as Angler, lotte, bellyfish, frogfish, sea devil and goosefish). Not a pretty fish, the Monkfish is large, firm textured. It is lowfat and has a mild sweet flavor. It is often compared to lobster. The edible portion, tail (loin) can be roasted, grilled, braised, poached or sauteed.

What is tasso, where can it be found and what is it used for?
Laura N., Valencia, CA

It is a lean chunk of cured pork or beef, usually seasoned with red pepper, garlic, file powder, herbs and spices. Then it is smoked. It's generally used as a seasoning. It is hard to find outside Louisiana, try specialty shops and mail order companies.

Where can I obtain duck or goose liver?
L.D., Pearl City, HI

At the Food Network we order our goose liver from: D'Artagnan, Inc., 399-419 St. Paul Ave., Jersey City, NJ 07306, 800-327-8246.

What is andouille sausage which Emeril uses in many of his recipes?
Eileen B., Warrenville, IL

Andouile is a spicy, heavily smoked sausage made from pork chitterlings and tripe. Originated in France, it is a specialty of Cajun cooking, which is why Emeril uses it so often.

What is the best cut of beef to use in a stir fry?
Susan F., Morristown NJ

Tender cuts, such as sirloin or chuck are best for stir frying. Make sure the meat is sliced thinly and seasoned before you stir fry, that your pan is hot, oil heated, etc. - and don't overcook the meat.

My local grocery store sells chicken feet; what are they used for?
Dale D., Moore, OK

Chicken feet are usually added to the pot to add a gelatinous quality to chicken soup. In the olden days one just added a whole fresh killed chicken to the pot, so the feet were already included!

Is it true that you cook octopus and squid for either 2 minutes or, if longer than that, at least 20 minutes?
Victor S, Cambridge, MA

I can't say why this is so, but it is true. If you cook squid for 2 minutes it will be cooked through, juicy and with texture that has some bite to it. After 2 minutes of cooking, however, the squid begins to get rubbery and remains so until it has cooked for another 20 minutes at least. After 20 minutes the texture of the squid changes from rubbery to tender, but the flesh has, at the same time, given off a tremendous amount of its juices and is quite reduced in volume. I recommend the quick saute for pasta sauces and stirfried main courses; the second method when squid is just one ingredient in a longer simmering soup or stew.

What is the difference between salmon & lox?
Carol W., Lake Forest, CA

The salmon you are referring to is smoked salmon and Nova or Nova Scotia Salmon is a silky smooth salmon which has been coldsmoked. Lox, on the other hand is a salmon which has first been salt cured, then cold smoked. Lox is saltier which is why it is so good tamed with cream cheese spread on bagels.

How long can you keep chicken stock in the fridge as opposed to the freezer?
Enrique G., Houston, TX

Stocks keep safely in the fridge only for 2 days. After that you need to bring the refrigerated stock back to a boil to destroy the bacteria. It makes more sense thus to pack stock, in a rigid container, in quantities of about a cup, leaving 1/2 inch of air space at the top. Stock will keep well in the freezer for 4 to 6 months at 0 degrees F. Make sure to remove all fat from the stock before you freeze it because fat turns rancid, even in the freezer.

How do you prevent fish from sticking to the grill and may I use a vegetable spray?
Kathy S., No address

You can certainly use a vegetable spray on any grill pan, provided you spray away from the heat. Do not spray directly on an outdoor grill because the spray is flammable.

Where can I find duck breasts?
Melanie C., Knoxville, TN

You have to buy duck breasts at the butcher's or try a mail order catalog like: D'Artagnan, Inc. 399 St. Paul's Avenue, Jersey City, New Jersey 07306. FAX # 2017926113; Phone # 2017920748.

How much fattier is pork than beef, chicken and fish?
Kathy M., New York, NY

This is a complex question because different cuts from the same meat have different percentages of fat and of course within the "fat family", some are saturated or some are unsaturated Here though is an average based on a 3 ounce portion of cooked meat. A 3 ounce portion of cooked beef ranges from 4 grams of fat (top round steak) all the way up to 14 grams of fat for a 3 ounce well done lean hamburger. Chicken breast meat with bone and skin or chicken thigh, skinned and boned is as high as 8 grams of fat but lean cooked skinless boneless chicken breast is only 3 grams of fat. Steamed or grilled lean fish is about 1 gram of fat per 3 ounces cooked, but can be as high as 3 grams of fat for fried lean fish, or 5 grams of fat for broiled bluefish. And finally pork can be as lean as 12 grams of fat for a 3 ounce portion of broiled or roasted pork loin or rib, but goes as high as 26 grams of fat for each 3 ounces of spareribs!

How should I cook meat so that it does not come out so tough?
TCF Bank., Chicago, Illinois

This is a complex question which has lots of answers, but don't feel bad because lots of people have this problem. The first problem is that I don't know what cut of meat you are talking about nor do I know how you cooked the particular cut of meat. In general, people have poor results when they apply the wrong cooking method to a cut of meat. Often that mistake is because of how supermarkets market their cuts of meat. For example, roasting, broiling, grilling and sauteeing are dry heat methods of cooking which should be used with cuts of meat which are tender and have plenty of inner fat so they remain moist. These cuts are from the middle section of the animal the rib and loin sections and beginning of the leg. The shoulder and leg parts are tough and need moist methods of cooking like braising and stewing. However, if you go to the market and buy a "chuck steak" chances are you will broil or grill the piece of meat because it says it is a "steak". Chuck steak though comes from the shoulder, a tough cut of beef which should be braised, not grilled nor broiled. Roasts are sold in the same way. For example an eye round of beef is very lean and dry and won't make for a particularly succulent roast, even though the supermarket sells it as "eye round roast". How do you cope then? Check the cut of meat first see if it is from the shoulder, loin, rib or leg section. Then go to a classic all purpose comprehensive cookbook like the Joy of Cooking and see how that cut of meat ought to be cooked. That strategy ought to help.

What is the difference between Rock and Tiger shrimp?
Barry F., Los Angeles, California

Rock shrimp are caught in the Gulf of Mexico or off the midAtlantic states or southern states. Because they are so hard to peel they are sold peeled as well as peeled and cooked. Tiger shrimp is farm raised and comes from Asia.

What is "andouille" sausage and what can I substitute for it?
Lu G., Palm Beach Garden, FL

Andouille sausages are pork sausages, heavily spiced and usually smoked In Europe, they are popular in France and Belgium and in this country, popular in Cajun cooking. The real authentic composition of "andouille" sausage will probably turn you off - but here goes: they are made from chitterling, tripe or "calf mesentery". Chitterling is the middle section or small intestines of the animal; "tripe" refers to the lining of the animal's stomach and "mesentery" is a connecting ruffled looking fold, also from the intestinal area of the animal. In France there are as many varieties of "andouille" as you can imagine, but here, they are harder to get. If you can't find "andouille", substitute another spicy smoked cooked pork sausage.

Can I substitute ground pork for lamb in moussaka?
Pam K., Jefferson City, TN

You can, but ground pork gives off a huge amount of fat. I would suggest substituting ground beef rather than pork. Also, in the summer, look for "lamb patties" ready for the grill; they are nothing more than ground lamb.

How much raw shrimp do I need to buy to yield 8 ounces cooked?
Carolyn P., Bronxville, NY

Believe it or not, you'll need 1 to 1 1/4 pounds raw shrimp in the shell to yield 8 ounces cooked shrimp, or 1 cup.

How can I get to prepare medium rare roast beef?
Mark C., Phila., PA

There are several factors which determine how long to cook a roast beef so it comes out medium rare the oven temperature, how thick it is, and whether you cook it bone in or out. First know that a medium rare roast beef is cooked to the internal temperature of 130 to 140 degrees. Bonein roasts take about 17 minutes per pound and boneless roasts 810 minutes more per pound. (The bone conducts heat so the roast cooks faster). However there is another important factor how thick the roast is. So a boneless filet of beef, which has a small diameter, will cook much faster than at all, thick standing rib roast which needs more time for the heat to penetrate to the interior of the meat. There is also something called "carryover" cooking, which means that a roast, once out of the oven, continues to cook a degree or two more, during the time it takes to rest it before carving. The most important factor is to know the temperature you should cook it at and to invest in an "instant read" thermometer so you know exactly the temperature it reaches during cooking. These "instant read: thermometers are the ones you stick into the roast, read the temperature and immediately remove from the roast; you do not keep it in the meat during the duration of the roasting time.

What is Ahi tuna?
Mitch V., Manhattan Beach, CA.

Ahi tuna is simply "yellowfin" tuna. It is a term used in Hawaii to describe this variety of tuna which is distinguished from the other variety of tuna, known as "bluefin". Most trendy cooks use this term I think just because it sounds better than "yellowfin".

Where can I find sausage casings to make sausages from scratch?
Ruth H., Taylors, SC

Unfortunately casings are hard to come by unless you live in a part of the country where fresh sausage making is popular and you have specialty butchers, as we do in New York City, which specialize in classic sausage making. However, don't despair, remember that sausage making is simply the art of combining chopped ingredients with different types of seasoning and spices. While cumbersome, you can make small links or larger sausages free form, wrap each one in 100 percent cotton cheesecloth and wrap string at either end to tie them up. To secure a large sausage, you would have to wrap some string around the body of the sausage itself. This method works for poaching and braising but you would run into trouble for sauteeing or grilling. What I recommend is that if you adopt this method, shape the sausages into small links and wrap them in cheesecloth. Poach or blanch them first so they hold their shape. If you want a crisp exterior, unwrap the slightly cooked sausages, then saute them to crisp up the exterior. A cumbersome method indeed, but the best alternative I could come up with when you can't get hold of casings.

Can I use a Virginia Country Ham instead of prosciutto?
Andy G., Florham Park, NY

Prosciutto is an Italian seasoned, salt-cured and air dried ham. It has a velvety texture and is usually eaten raw (with melon) or added at the last minute to cooked dishes (overcooked it tastes awful). Virginia country hams on the other hand are dry-cured, seasoned and smoked for a long time. Whereas they can be served raw, usually these types of hams are soaked and cooked. I think that if used in very small quantities as a seasoning you can substitute a good country ham for a prosciutto - but only in small quantities because the flavors and textures are so radically different.

How do I cook shrimp so they don't overcook and keep their shape?
Toni P., New York, NY

The best way to cook them so they are most tender is to cook them in their shell; they will still curl somewhat. Another way is to peel them and cook them very gently until done, - about 2 to 3 minutes. The key is to never overcook them nor to cook them at too high a heat.

What can I substitute for Toulouse Sausage in a French cassoulet?
John S., Floyds Knobs, IN

Julia Child in her Mastering the Art of French Cooking Volume 1 suggests you make your own fresh sausage cakes and substitute them for the Toulouse sausage. She recommends you grind together lean fresh pork with fresh pork fat (proportions of 3 & 1/3 parts pork; 1 part fat). Beat in salt, a large pinch pepper, a large pinch ground allspice, a minced clove of garlic and some Cognac. Shape the mixture into patties which are about 2 inches in diameter and 1/2 inch thick and brown them in a skillet. Proceed with your recipe.

Can I freeze smoked salmon?

I live in Manhattan maybe the smoked salmon capitol of the world and yes, yes, yes, you can freeze smoked salmon with no ill effects. Because of my European background - this will come as a huge shock to everyone who eats smoked salmon - I eat leftovers with mayonnaise on toasted bread with cucumbers! Strips of leftovers are great too in scrambled eggs.

Should I go to the trouble of cooking a leg of lamb, for 7 hours a la Patricia Wells in her Bistro Cooking book?
Babs A., Newport Beach, CA

I have never made that particular recipe myself; all I can say is that Patricia Wells is a superb cook with impeccable taste and if she included it, I bet it is worth your while. However, maybe someone reading this column has tested the recipe and can provide you with a better answer.

Can you do a show on making veal stock or tell me where to purchase it?
David B., Chatham, MA

Thanks for the suggestion on devoting a show to making rich veal stock; it is something I have wanted to do and definitely will in the future.

Until you make it from scratch though, here are ideas on how to get your hands on some ready-made stock. What is happening in New York City and what may be happening close to where you live, is that gourmet stores which specialize in catering and upscale take-out dishes now provide their customers with homemade stock, including authentic rich gelatinous veal stock and I have also seen excellent stock sold in butcher shops. However, if this is just not happening in your part of the country, then maybe these two solutions will help. There is a nationally distributed frozen stock line called "Perfect Addition". They sell chicken, vegetable, fish and beef stock and it is perfectly okay to substitute in recipes their beef for veal; it will work. The address I have for them is simply Perfect Addition, Newport Beach, California 92658. Write to them or get a phone number and see where they distribute their product in your area. Also, there is a small mail-order source named D'Artagnan which distributes refrigerated upscale ingredients including duck fat and something called "Demi-glace" - again a fabulous substitute (once you thin it with water) for stock. D'Artagnan's demi-glace is in fact a reduced stock sauce base and can be used straight, as is, for sauces. D'Artagnan Inc. 399 St. Paul's Avenue, Jersey City, New Jersey 07306. FAX # 201-792-6113; Phone # 201-792-0748. By the way, don't faint when you see the prices. Making this stuff is not cheap, even at home.

Can I freeze a cooked dish like shrimp jambalaya, even though the shrimp had been frozen before?
Marylyne G., Newport Beach, CA

First of all the answer is yes, even though by the time you receive this answer your casserole would have been eaten or discarded. Your question though raises the overall issue of whether or not, in general, one can freeze a dish made with previously frozen ingredients. The answer is always yes because by cooking an ingredient you are transforming its structure and nature. Freezing raw ingredients prevents them from deteriorating as quickly as they might were you not to freeze them. However, once an ingredient is cooked, its structure is changed, and you can freeze it again, in its new form.

What is pulled pork?
Anne W., Los Angeles, CA

Pulled pork refers to cooked pork shoulder, (usually barbecued) which has been "pulled" apart into small string-like pieces.. In the south, these delicious leftovers are eaten in a fabulous sandwich. Sometimes the pulled pork is reheated in a vinegar or barbecue sauce to flavor it further and it is then spooned between squishy white bread buns. To create the luscious cooked pork shoulder you need to make those delicious "pulled pork" sandwiches, look in southern cookbooks or in ones which specialize in barbecues.

How do you get that extra lean beef to be less dry?
Mrs. K., Houston, TX

Unfortunately for our arteries, it is the fat in the beef that gives it great flavor and keeps it moist, especially during cooking. However, there are a couple of ways to make that extra lean beef be less dry. Unfortunately these methods are in direct conflict with the very health concerns which drive people to eat lean beef. The first and best way is to undercook the beef and leave it as rare as possible. This way the natural suppleness of the meat fibers don't toughen under heat. A hamburger, for example should be grilled or broiled just to char the outside; if you leave the insides rare it will taste moist on your tongue. However, people are scared to undercook ground beef because of bacteria which lurks in raw meat. The other trick is to moisten the lean beef with a little bit of vegetable oil. While vegetable oil is still a fat, at least it is unsaturated fat.

What is that "confit" Emeril loves to cook with?
Kathy B. Philadelphia, PA

Given that Emeril uses it frequently, you might think that "confit" is a Cajun specialty. But no, it is a French term used to describe a way of preserving meat (usually pork) or poultry (usually goose and duck). The meat or poultry is salted first, then slowly cooked in its own rendered fat. The resulting confit is then packed in crocks and sealed with more fat. You can eat it cold, sliced thinly, in salads or use it to add to hot dishes such as the French specialty "cassoulet". You can buy confit in specialty stores or from a mail order catalog like : D'Artagnan, Inc. 399 St. Paul's Avenue, Jersey City, New Jersey 07306. FAX # 201-792-6113; Phone # 201-792-0748.

Fruits & Vegetables

Will you please explain the difference between chives and green onions and scallions?
Graham M., Kansas City, MO

Chives are herbs related to both the onion and the leek. Chives are slender, vivid green, hollow stems that have a mild onion flavor and are available fresh-year-round. Chives at their peek are a uniform green color with no signs of wilting or browning. They can be stored in a plastic bag in the refrigerator for up to a week. Fresh chives can be snipped with scissors to the desired length and are delicious in many cooked dishes but should be added toward the end of the cooking time to retain their flavor. Frozen and freeze-dried chives are also available in most supermarkets.

A green onion can be classified as a type of scallion. Moreover, the name scallion applies to several members of the onion family including a distinct variety called scallion, immature onions (commonly called green onions), young leeks and sometimes the tops of young shallots. In each case the vegetable has a white base that has not fully developed into a bulb and green leaves that are long an straight. Both parts are edible. True scallions are generally identified by the fact that the sides of the base are straight, whereas the others are usually slightly curved, showing the beginnings of a bulb. All can be used interchangeably although true scallions have a milder flavor than immature onions. Scallions are available year-round, but are at their peak during spring and summer. At their peak, scallions are crisp with bright green tops and a firm white base. Mid-sized scallions with long white stems are the best. They should be stored, wrapped in a plastic bag, in the vegetable crisper section of the refrigerator for up to 5 days. Scallions can be cooked whole as a vegetable much as you would a leek. They can also be chopped and used in salads, soups and a multitude of other dishes for flavor.

What are haricot verts?
Katie A., New Jersey

Haricot vert is the French term for "green string bean," haricot meaning "bean" and vert meaning "green." The term haricot vert is used to describe a young, very slender green bean with a dull green, tender pod and very small seeds. It is also known as a French green bean and French bean.

I need help defining the word "Escarole".
Missy W., Concord, NH

Escarole an endive (a plant with curly dark green leaves and a slightly bitter flavor) with broader, paler, less curly leaves and less bitter flavor; also known as Batavian endive. Escarole is available year-round, with the peak season from June through October.

Please tell me about tomatillos? How can they be used?
Renee F., Delray Beach, FL

Also known as the "Mexican green tomato," "Mexican husk tomato," "husk tomato," and "jamberries" the tomatillo belongs to the same nightshade family as the tomato. The tomatillo resembles a small green tomato except for its thin parchment paper like husk. The husk is similar to that on a gooseberry to which it is also related. Although tomatillos can ripen to yellow and purple, they are generally ripe while still green and firm. Their flesh is usually crisp pale yellow with a tart lemony flavor with hints of apple and herbs.

Tomatillos are available sporadically year-round in speciality produce stores, Latin American markets and some supermarkets. Canned tomatillos are available in ethnic markets. When buying fresh tomatillos, you should choose firm fruit with dry, tight-fitting husks. Store them in the refrigerator for up to a month. Remove the husk and wash the fruit before using. Cooking enhances the tomatillo's flavor and softens its thick skin. Tomatillos are popular in Mexican and Southwest cooking and used in a variety of dishes including guacamole and many sauces. They can be used raw in salads and salsas for a more acidic taste.

What are cardoons?
Linda P., address unknown

The cardoon is a vegetable that is very popular in France, Italy and Spain. It resembles a large bunch of wide, flat celery and is silvery-gray in color. Once the tough outer ribs are removed, cardoon can be boiled, braised or baked. Cardoon tastes like a cross between an artichoke, celery and salsify and its season is from midwinter to early spring. Potassium, calcium and iron are all found in abundance in cardoon, but keep in mind that it is also high in sodium.

I have seen your chefs, especially Emeril, use something called a "truffle." The only truffle I know is the one you get at the candy store. Can you tell me what this is?
Keri C., Mission Viejo, CA

The truffle is a fungus. The rarest and most expensive fungus in the world. It grows 3 to 12 inches underground near the roots of oak and chestnut trees. Rooted out by trained pigs or dogs, they sniff them out, but never beyond the range of tree branches. They are rather fragile so touching a truffle with bare hands causes them to prematurely decay.

The most popular truffles are found in France and Italy they are the black truffle, known as the black diamond, which is extremely pungent with white striations, and the white truffle which has an earthy garlicky aroma and is an off-beige color. The black are used in cooked foods omelets, polentas, risottos and sauces. The white are usually grated and added at the last minute to pastas or cheese dishes. Fresh truffles are available from late fall to midwinter in specialty markets. They can also be found canned, in a paste form, frozen and infused into oil.

What is a Belgian Endive? What is it used in and how do you cook it - or do you cook it?
Carolyn, no address

There are three main varieties of endive, Belgian Endive, Curly Endive and Escarole. Endive is closely related to and often confused with its cousin, chicory. They're both part of the same botanical family, Cichorium.

Belgian Endive, also known as French Endive and Witloof (white leaf), is a small, 6 inch long, cigar shaped head of white, tightly packed, slightly bitter leaves. It's grown in a unique manner, in complete darkness to prevent it from turning green, known as blanching. Belgian endive is available from September through May. Look for crisp firmly packed heads with pale, yellow green tips. Keep refrigerated wrapped in a paper towel inside a plastic bag for no more than a day. They can be served cold as part of a salad or cooked by braising or baking.

What are ramps?
Frank P., Mt. Carmel, PA

Ramps, also known as wild leeks, are wild onions which resemble scallions with broader leaves. They can be found in specialty produce markets from March to June and grow from Canada to the Carolinas. Wrapped tightly in a plastic bag, they can be refrigerated up to a week. Although the garlicky-onion flavor of ramps is a bit stronger than leek, scallion or onion, it can often be used as a substitute for any of those three.

I am very interested in the tropical fruits sold at my grocery store. My question is about the star fruit. Does it have to be peeled before it can be consumed?
Susan T. Bozeman, MT

The short answer to you question is no, it does not have to be peeled. You can simply rinse, slice or eat it whole. Appearance can be improved by shaving off darker skin with a vegetable peeler. Other names for the star fruit are carambola (Indian name for it), five-angled fruit, and Chinese star fruit. You should look for a star fruit that is from 2-5 inches long with juicy-looking ribs. Avoid fruit with browned, shriveled ribs. They can be purchased green, then allowed to yellow at room temperature before eating. They should have a full-floral fruity aroma. If using within 3 days, store at room temperature or refrigerate in a place where they will not bruise for up to 2 weeks. There are a few varieties of star fruit. One variety is sour/tart in flavor and has narrow ribs, the sweet variety has thick, fleshy ribs, and there are two varieties of white star fruit marketed that are both considered sweet. Use sour/tart variety in place of lemon or lime slices with fish, poultry and mixed drinks. In the east they are pickled. Sweeter varieties are ideal for fruit salads and purees (alone or with other fruits). They also go well with avocados.

Star fruit are low in calories (40 cal. per medium fruit) and are a good source of vitamin A, C, potassium and fiber--no fat! Their season runs September through May.

I understand that there are two varieties of eggplant, male and female. How do I identify them at the store?
Ela B., Santa Ana, CA

Eggplants are indigenous to India and were traded to North Africa, Spain and eventually to Europe. The male vegetable has a small round mark, like a naval, on its underside and the female has an oblong scar on its underside. The female has more seeds, hence more bitterness. Smaller eggplants are more supple and usually less bitter. Most bitterness has been bred out of eggplants, however. Salting eggplant before cooking softens the texture. Look for a shiny, healthy looking vegetable without blemishes, scars or wrinkles in the skin.

What is mesclun?
Zaid I. San Diego, CA

Mesclun is found in specialty produce markets as well as many supermarkets. It is a mixture of young, small salad greens which vary but can include dandelion, arugula, frisee, oak leaf, mizuma, radicchio, mache, sorrel and endive. Mesclun should be picked based on the crispness of the leaves, which should show no signs of wilting, and can be refrigerated up to 5 days in a plastic bag. Wash and dry carefully just before using.

I was wondering what exactly is a "heart of palm", where do they come from, are they a fruit, vegetable, or what, and why are they called hearts of palm?
Bill W. Dallas, TX

Heart of palm is the inner, edible portion of the stem of the cabbage palm tree. This palm grows in tropical climates such as Florida (it's the state tree) and Brazil. Hearts of palm are ivory colored and resemble white asparagus without the tip. They are usually available canned and packed in water, are rather expensive and have a taste reminiscent of artichoke. Delicious in salads, hearts of palm can also be used in main dishes or fried.

What is Chiffonade of Basil?
Paula K., Witchita, KS

Chiffonade is a verb which means to finely slice or shred leafy vegetables or herbs. It is a slicing technique. To chiffonade basil, stack several leaves, roll like a cigar and starting from the pointed end cut the "cigar" into 1/8 inch slices. The pros can slice them even thinner. Chiffonades can be used to garnish soups, meats, fish, etc. Literally translated from the French it means "made of rags."

What is the best way to peel beets?
Michael B., OK

The beet is a round, firm, root vegetable which has edible leafy green tops. The most common color of beets is deep red which becomes a dye on your hands and cutting board. If you want to use them uncooked, julienned in salads wear plastic gloves to avoid staining and use a vegetable peeler. For cooked beets, cut off the green tops leaving about an inch. Roast or boil them until tender, cool slightly, still hot, slide the beets out of their skins. You can coax them with a knife, but it should be easy.

What is broccoli rabe?
Gene K., California, PA

It's a vegetable related to the cabbage and turnip family. The stalks grow to 6-9 inches tall. It has green leafy and scattered clusters of broccoli-like florets. It is also called broccoli di rape and rapini. The greens have a pungent bitter flavor. You can store them in a plastic bag in the refrigerator for up to 5 days.

What are truffles?
Barbara G., Palmdale, CA

Real truffles (not the chocolate candies) are fungi which grow wild, underground near the roots of trees such as the chestnut, hazel and oak. They are so hard to find you need pigs and dogs which have been specially trained to years to root them out. For years people have tried to cultivate them, but with little success. Truffles are unbelievably expensive because they are so hard to harvest, and they are extremely perishable (if the farmer touches the truffles with his hands this will cause the fungus to spoil). The truffle looks like a dusty irregular small rock with a skin tone which varies from off white to almost black. The most desirable truffle with the most aroma is the black truffle; they are used extensively in 3 star French restaurants. Personally I prefer the white truffle from Italy which has a more delicate aroma.

What does "brunoise" mean?
Elissa P., Coral Springs, SD

"Brunoise" is a French word used to describe a mixture of vegetables, usually onion, celery and carrot, which have been very finely diced, then cooked slowly in butter. This classic mixture is used as a base to flavor soups, stews and sauces.

How much fresh spinach does one need to yield the equivalent of 10 ounces frozen?
Kim B., Louisville, KY

A 10ounce package of frozen spinach, thawed yields about 1 & 1/2 cups, which would be about the equivalent of 2 pounds of fresh spinach, stemmed, washed and blanched.

Is it all right to substitute onion for shallots; how does this effect flavor?
Beth S., Macomb, IL

You can substitute onions or green onions if you wish. The only change in flavor is that the recipe cooked with regular onion might be a tad less delicate than one cooked with shallots.

How do you peel plaintains and what are the best ways to cook them?
Gary T., Lincoln, NE

How you peel and cook plaintains depends upon their degree of ripeness. If they are hard, green or yellow their flesh is starchy and somewhat bland, not unlike a potato. The best way to peel these hard ones is to cut them into smaller cross sections and with a knife remove each strip of skin starting at one corner and pulling slightly crosswise and down. The best way to cook these is as you would potatoes: you can boil and mash them, but they are best deep fried as you would potato chips. Semi ripe plaintains are also delicious grilled.

What is the best way to roast vegetables?
Alex R., PA.

You may be having trouble because there is no set single rule on how to roast vegetables. Each vegetable has a specific cellulose and water content and this influences how to roast, for how long and at what temperature.

Two good cookbooks which might help are: Kathy Gunst's Roasting, Macmillan, l995 (paperback) and Barbara Kafka's Roasting, l995 (Hardcover)

When you blanch and freeze vegetables are any of the nutrients lost?
Nikita D., Anaheim, CA

Sure, some of the nutrients are lost but if you blanch fresh vegetables right after they have been picked, they will retain more nutrients than fresh vegetables that have been lying around for weeks in warehouses, supermarkets or your refrigerator.

How should I treat fresh pineapple so that I can use it in gelatin based desserts?
Laura F., Littlerock, CA

As you know already, fresh pineapple is not appropriate for gelatin based desserts because an enzyme in the fresh fruit inhibits gelling. However, were you to just poach fresh pineapple in a light sugar syrup, you would destroy the enzyme and the pineapple would be usable in gelatin based dessert. But then, you lose the whole flavor of the fresh pineapple so you might as well use canned to begin with. However, why not make a gelatin based dessert with canned pineapple and garnish it with fresh pineapple? Or puree pineapple with frozen yogurt to make a great shake. You could also puree pineapple with some orange juice and sugar and spoon it over pound cake or other fruits.

How do you prepare bok choy for cooking? Can you use the green leafy part?
Lori L., Northampton, PA

Bok choy is a celery cabbage, popular in Chinese cooking. It is available year round, but is at its peak during the winter. To prepare it for cooking, simply wash it and cut up the whole vegetables, stalk and leaves. Use it in sautes and stirfries, cooking the stalks first which take a few more moments to cook than do the leaves. It is great with meats and combined with noodles dishes.

What is the best way to store cultivated mushrooms from the supermarket?
Ken M., San Bernardino, CA

You're in luck. Because September is mushroom month, I happen to have before me a press release sent to me from The Mushroom Council. So here is what they say about storing mushrooms from the supermarket. First of all remove the plastic wrap from the carton. Cover with a paper towel and refrigerate. Or, if you have bought them loose, store them in a porous paper bag in the refrigerator. They need to "breathe" so they don't rot. Don't clean them until ready to use and they will keep for several days.

Is it true that you don't have to refrigerate baked apples because the sugar acts as a preservative?
Candace P., La Palma, California

While I am not familiar with the exact temperature and humidity of your house, in general it is safer to refrigerate cooked foods. The baked apples would have to be very saturated with sugar for the sugar to act as a preservative. Also, if food companies recommend refrigerating canned apples and applesauce once the container is open, then certainly homebaked apples ought to be refrigerated, covered, to preserve them as safely as possible.

What is the shelf life of sundried tomatoes not packed in oil?
Christine B., South Setauket, NY

The shelf life is indefinite. When purchasing dried tomatoes, look for ones which are the reddest and plumpest; they will taste best.

What's the best and quickest way to ripen avocados?
Lisa N., Baton Rouge LA

First be sure you buy the best avocados, which I think are the Haas avocados from California. The Haas avocados are the smaller pear shaped ones which, when ripe, have an almost blue black hue. Don't buy fully ripened avocados; chances are they will bruise on the way home. Instead buy firm ones, with dark green skin; set them on the counter at room temperature to ripen in a couple of days. You can tell they are ripe if the color looks almost black and the stem end yields slightly when gently pressed. Once ripe, refrigerate them so they don't overripen.

To speed up the ripening process, set the firm unripe avocado in a brown paper bag along with a tomato and set the bag in the warmest part of your kitchen. The ethylene gas in both the avocado and the tomato will cut the ripening process in half.

What's the best way to cook kohlrabi?
Bob and Char A., Costa Mesa, CA

I don't give out recipes on the Web site, but here are some tips. To avoid a fibrous texture in your cooked kohlrabi, at the outset, be sure to choose small or medium-sized ones. One of the simplest ways of preparing kohlrabi is to peel and steam it until just tender, but still with some texture to it. Serve drizzled with melted butter or olive oil and a squirt of fresh lemon or lime juice. Another quick way is to peel the kohlrabi, cut it into thick strips or thin slices an saute in butter and serve with grated Parmesan cheese. And finally, for a more festive elegant preparation, boil the peeled kohlrabi, puree it through a food mill; work in some heavy cream to taste and season with salt and pepper. If you make this in advance, reheat the puree in a double boiler.

What is an "haricot vert"?
Jenny L. D. Reno, NV

A "haricot vert" is simply the French word for string bean. However, haricot vert has come to mean the pencil thin string beans available in fancy produce stores. Chefs use that phrase to distinguish them from the ordinary thicker, stringier green beans you see in supermarkets and in most produce stores.

I am mystified by tapioca; enlighten me cyberchef!
Amy S., no address

Love your question and I'll try my best. Tapioca in its fresh form is indeed "Yuca", but Yuca is another name for what is the root of the cassava plant. To confuse things further, this root is also known as "manioc", "mandioca" and in some instance "tapioca". Raw it has a bland and sticky quality and is used in cooking the way you would a potato - it can be boiled, mashed, fried, etc.

The tapioca you are probably familiar with is either tapioca flour or pearl tapioca which is made from dried Cassava. Because of its sticky quality tapioca flour is used a thickening agent the way you would cornstarch. Pearl tapioca, however, comes in several sizes and is available either "regular" or "instant" and it is used to thicken custards and pie fillings and is used to make puddings. Instant pearl tapioca is what is mostly available in supermarkets whereas other forms of tapioca can be obtained in health food stores, Asian or Hispanic markets.

Why must you cook plantains?
Robert B., Kutztown, PA

You should cook plaintains because raw they taste like a raw potato.

What do I do with fresh anise?
No name, no address.

The reason you may be having so much trouble finding a recipe for fresh anise is that in culinary terms it is known as fresh fennel. It appears a lot in Italian cuisine and in the cooking of Southern France.

It is served raw as you would celery, braised, sauteed, fried, grilled and is even pureed into soups. Its distinctive "anise" flavor is quite apparent fennel is served raw, but it becomes quite mild and tame after cooking.

How is a pimiento different from a red bell pepper?
Ben A., Baltimore, MD

Guess what - it isn't. Pimientos are simply a variety of a red bell pepper. Usually they are peeled and packed in a brine. The are different from roasted peppers in that they have not been roasted at all. In cooking pimientos are interchangeable with roasted peppers.

Why do you cook French fries twice?
No name., no address

Given that I grew up in Belgium, home of the best French fries in the world, I ought to be able to answer this question. The first frying is to cook the potatoes through so the interior of the fry will be moist and fluffy; the second frying is to give the pre-cooked fries the crispest exterior imaginable. This is how my family made fries and believe me they really were the best in the world. The only other caution is to be sure you use potatoes with the highest starch content possible, e.g. baking potatoes and make sure you do your first frying at 325 degrees F and the second one at 375 degrees F.

Can I prevent okra from becoming slimy?
Selena ., Bloomfield, NJ

Yes - if you use fresh ones, cook them whole and barely cook them or deep fry them. Please do not use the frozen kind, they are horrible. Modify your recipes if they instruct you to cook okra, sliced and for a long time. (Add them to your recipe whole for the last 3 minutes of cooking time)

Tell me everything you know about chick peas.
Jeanne F., Westboro, MA

I don't have the space to tell you every thing I know, but here are the basics. Chick peas, also known as garbanzos (in Spanish) or Ceci (in Italian) are light beige-hued dried beans. They have a tiny little point at one end which looks la little bit like a beak. It has a great nutty buttery taste and, if not overcooked, a lovely bit of a crunchy texture as well. Supposedly it was cultivated in ancient Mesopotamia, then moved to India and the Mediterranean and it was introduced to Europe through Spain. It is available dried and canned. There are tons of recipes which call for them - hummus, a puree of chick peas popular in Middle Eastern cuisine being perhaps one of the best known.

Which potatoes should I use for soups I want to freeze?
Bob G., Bethlehem, PA

None (my briefest answer ever !). Potatoes of all kinds are miserable tasting when frozen. So - this is what I recommend to my readers and viewers. For soups you make in advance - hold the potatoes. When you thaw the soup, boil potatoes separately and then add them to your reheated soup. On the other hand if you are freezing leftovers of soup which already incorporate potatoes, try to remove the cooked potatoes before you freeze the leftovers. Also - the best potatoes to use in soups are boiling or all purpose potatoes, not the Idaho baking potatoes.

How do I preserve roasted peppers without marinating them?
Beth McC., Oswego, NY

Fabulous question - just roast your peppers, scrape off the skin, puree them (with or without olive oil) Freeze them in 1/4 cupful pats on a baking sheet. When frozen solid, transfer them to a bag - they are ready to use in recipes which you cook. I also think you could use the thawed puree in dressings or salsas.

Cleaning mushrooms are becoming too much of a bother. Can you make cleaning them any easier?
Elizabeth L., NY

If the mushrooms look really clean, I just trim the end off the stems and, with a damp paper towel, just wipe the tops off. If they are dirty, I peel them.

What are good sources of potassium other than bananas?
Jim F., Belleville, IL

Believe it or not, most fruits, dairy, fish, vegetables, poultry and lean meat are good sources of potassium. However ones which are especially high, other than bananas, are baking potatoes (Idahos) cantaloupes, orange juice and low fat yogurt.

My garlic braid is smelling up my kitchen; how to I preserve it?
Cookie H.

First of all the reason your garlic braid is smelling up your kitchen is probably because it is somewhat moist. In a cool dark place the garlic braid would just dry out and wither but not give off any odor. What you can do before the whole lot rots is to either roast them - by cutting off the tip and roasting at 375 degree oven for 30 to 40 minutes. Then you peel them and puree with some olive oil and some lemon juice. You can use it raw this was to season dressings or use a teaspoon of the mixture in cooked items as well. You don't have to go to the trouble of roasting it, just peel and blanch the cloves for 3 minutes, drain and pat them dry, then puree them with olive oil and a bit of lemon juice. You need the lemon juice to prevent spoilage. Once you have the puree though, refrigerate it only for 2 weeks; freeze them rest in small containers.

What kind of apples do I use for baking in pies and in cakes?
Teena M., Guam

The best ones are ones which have good flavor, with the right balance of sweetness and acidity; ones which are not too mealy nor too juicy. The ones to choose from are numerous and will change depending upon the seasons

Golden Delicious (most like what the French use in their apple tarts) are good year round. They are sweet and hold their shape. Add a few drops of lemon juice to them to make them a little more tangy.

Granny Smith apples are tart and juicy are better in cakes, but will do in pies.

Pippins, when in season are fabulous for pie making. They are tart and hold their shape, but out of season they become mealy.

I don't use McIntosh apples because I think they are too watery and disintegrate, nor do I use Rome Beauties in pies because they are too mealy for my taste.

What is a Chipotle chili and can I substitute something else for it?
Kathy K., Stillwater, MN

Chipotle chilis are hot little chili peppers which are dried by smoking. They are available dried, canned or pickled. THEY ARE INCREDIBLY HOT. You can substitute other varieties of hot chilis if it is just the heat you are after, but you will lose the unique smoky quality of the chipotle.

I baked a head of garlic in my toaster oven and it did not get soft enough. What did I do wrong?
Jane S.

The quick answer here is that a toaster oven does not generate heat which is intense enough. You have to roast a head of garlic in a regular oven. There are a couple of ways you go with this. Preheat the oven to 350 degrees. Leave the head of garlic unpeeled and whole and set it in an ovenproof baking dish. Drizzle about 1 tablespoonful of olive or vegetable oil over the top, season with salt and bake, uncovered, for 45 minutes to 1 hour. The second way is to cut a 1/4 inch off the top of the whole head of unpeeled cloves, drizzle with oil, season with salt and then wrap the head of garlic in foil. Bake for 25 to 30 minutes. Either way the garlic is done when the flesh is soft when squeezed out of the peel. Cool the garlic to room temperature, then keep the cloves, still in their skins in a sealed jar for up to 2 weeks.

How do I use star fruit?
Dianne H.

Star fruit, also known as carambola or Chinese star fruit are used depending upon which variety one has purchased. They come either sour or sweet. Both are eaten raw. The sour ones, however, are used, thinly sliced as a garnish instead of lemon or lime slices. Or they can be lightly sauteed and eaten as a tart accompaniment to seafood or poultry dishes.
The sweet ones are eaten raw, out of hand, simply rinsed and sliced. You don't even have to peel them, unless of course you don't care for the texture of the skin. The only trick then is to figure out if you have bought the sour or the sweet ones. If the market hasn't labeled them sour or sweet, then once home, cut into one and depending upon its flavor, then decide how to use it.
When you buy them, look for fleshly firm full fruits. If they are green let them ripen at room temperature until yellow and until they develop their characteristic floral aroma. Store them at room temperature if they are to be eaten within 48 hours or, once fully store them in the fridge for a couple of weeks.

Why do you have to seed those tomatoes?
Nimesh D., Anaheim, CA

Recipes instruct you to seed tomatoes because the wateriness of the seeds dilutes the flavor of whatever you are making if you remove those seeds, you are left with the essential pulp and flavor of the tomato. It is also believed that the tomato seeds, if left in, will impart bitterness to long simmering sauces.

How do I prevent my eyes from watering when I chop onions?
Janelle H., Lincoln NE

Sorry, Janelle - onions and tears are but a fact of the life of a cook. If the onions are cold when you chop them, your eyes will water less. However, to get the onions cold you'd have to store them in the fridge, which is not where they should be stored. If though you learn to slice and cut an onion by hand with a very sharp knife, the onions will bruise less and give off their fewer of their tear-making fumes. The food processor may be used to quickly chop onions but they bruise them terribly and make your eyes tear and water more and even faster.

My fiancee is allergic to onions of all sorts. What can I do?
Josh A. Decatur, IL

The other day on my show, Cooking Monday to Friday, I talked about how to season food without using onions!. While I know that we cooks are lost without onions, I appreciate the fact that many people are either allergic to or simply don't like onions and garlic. Japanese cuisine uses little onion seasoning and maybe you can draw inspiration from that. They flavor much of their food by contrasting the salty soy against a sweetness of some sort, such as Mirin (sweet rice wine) and against a peppery touch such as daikon (radish) or fresh ginger.

A great way to healthily add vibrant flavor to your food is to season with lots of fresh herbs. Add the chopped herbs, at the end of cooking time, so they retain their vibrant flavor and be sure to be generous with the amount. You can also season successfully with toasted spices or with or a dash of fresh citrus juice such as lemon or lime. All of these perk up flavor without using onions.

How do I store garlic?
Shari L., New York, NY

The best way to store garlic is in a dark airy spot at 50 degrees in the type of large country estate kitchen pantry I have seen only in movies. If your abode is as overheated as my apartment is, things get a little tricky. Garlic will keep, uncovered, in the fridge, but gives off its lovely aroma to all of the other ingredients you keep there, and eventually the garlic will rot and sprout. If your kitchen counter is not too hot, then keep it on the counter, at room temperature, but preferably in a garlic keeper which is a little perforated vessel made of ceramic. This way the garlic is in a dark place and not kept airtight so it won't rot. Use one clove or more as you need them, trying to keep other garlic cloves intact. Garlic stored properly will last for a few weeks to a few months, again depending upon humidity level and temperature of the environment. You can't freeze garlic. And by the way, if that head of garlic sprout shoots, not to worry. Let it keep on sprouting until the cloves in the head wither, and use the garlic sprouts as you would scallions.

What is orange and lemon zest? Did I miss a lesson?
Doug P.,  Richardson, Texas

No Doug, you didn't miss a lesson. We cooks throw culinary jargon around without always remembering to redefine the terms each time we mention them. Grated zest is simply the grated rind from citrus. It is used in cooking because the rind holds the precious oils where all the flavor resides. To grate zest or rind, take a box grater and rub the fruit against the grater. Don't rub the fruit down to the white inner skin, known as the pith, because the pith is bitter.

Herbs & Seasonings

What is in a bouquet garni?

Virginia D., Richmond Hill, On, Canada

Bouquet garnis is comprised of a selection of aromatic herbs used to flavor a stock, sauce or stew. Most commonly containing parsley, thyme and bay leaves, a bouquet garni is often bound with string or balled in cheesecloth to facilitate its easy removal.

What is truffle oil, and can I make my own?
David H., Auburn Hills, MI

Truffle oil is oil extracted from the truffle, one of the world's most prized and expensive foods. The truffle is a fungus that grows from 3 to 12 inches underground near the roots of trees (usually oak, but also chestnut, hazel and beech), never beyond the range of the branches. The high price of truffles, is due to the methodically slow and labor intensive harvesting process which involves the use of specially trained animals (pigs or dogs) to route out the hard to find fungus. Unfortunately, truffles which are largely found in southern Europe (particularly France and Italy) defy cultivation. A truffle has a rather unappealing appearance--it is round and irregularly shaped with a thick, rough, wrinkled skin that varies in color from almost black to off-white. Of the almost 70 known varieties, the most desirable is the black truffle, also known as the black diamond, of France's Perigord and Quercy regions and the Umbria region of Italy. The next most popular is the white truffle (actually off-white or beige) of Italy's Piedmont region, with its earthy, garlicky aroma and flavor.

Generally speaking, an oil is extracted from its source by one of two methods. In the solvent-extraction method, the ground ingredient is soaked in a chemical solvent that is later removed by boiling. The second method produces cold pressed oils, which is somewhat of a misnomer because the mixture is heated to temperatures up to 160 degrees Fahrenheit before being pressed to extract the oil. After the oil is extracted, it is either left in its crude state or refined. However, for the purposes of the home cook, who may not want to engage in such involved processes, the pungent flavor and aroma of the black truffle will allow a "truffle flavored" oil to be produced by simply storing cleaned and peeled slices in a tightly lidded glass jar of fine olive oil. The truffle will impart its flavor to the oil and the truffle pieces themselves can be used for up to a month if the jar is stored in the refrigerator.

I need help defining the word "Cardamon".
Missy W., Concord, NH

Cardamon is a spice member of the ginger family. Its long, light green or brown pods that contain 17 to 20 seeds that have a strong, lemony flavor with notes of camphor and a pleasantly pungent aroma. It is available in the pod, whole or ground and used principally in Indian and Middle Eastern cuisines.

I need help defining the word "Chervil".
Missy W., Concord, NH

Chervil is a mild-flavored herb and a member of the parsley family native to Russia: it has dark green curly leaves that have parsley-like flavor with overtones of anise. Chervil is generally used fresh rather than dried, although it is available in dried form. Though most chervil is cultivated for its leaves alone, the root is edible and was, in fact, enjoyed by early Greeks and Romans. It is one of the main classic ingredients in Fines Herbes (along with chives, parsley and tarragon)--a finely chopped herb mixture that should be added to cooked foods shortly before serving because their delicate flavor can be diminished when boiled. Chervil is also called cicily and sweet cicily.

Are there different types of cinnamon available for baking? It seems that the cinnamon in specialty shop treats is stronger and more flavorful than the cinnamon available at the local grocery store.
Penny, Jacksonville, TX

As one of the oldest and most flavorful spices known, cinnamon is sold in many grades and qualities. There are two main types of cinnamon Cassia cinnamon and Ceylon or "true" cinnamon. Cassia cinnamon is grown in Southeast Asia, mostly in southern China and northern Vietnam. It has the strong, spicy-sweet flavor most Americans are familiar with. Vietnamese and Chinese cassia are the strongest varieties. Korinje cassia has a smoother flavor with less bite.

Ceylon cinnamon has a much different flavor, less sweet with a complex citrus taste. Also known as old-fashioned cinnamon it is used more often in other parts of the world, mostly in England and Mexico where it is preferred for all uses.

The type of cinnamon most often found in supermarkets is a B or C grade of Cassia. If you want to buy a higher quality cinnamon try specialty stores or mail order houses. The research for this question was done using the information provided in the catalog from Penzeys, Ltd. which is an excellent spice company based in Milwaukee, WI.

How can I make sauces that use fresh peppercorns without them being tough and overbearingly "peppery"?
Patrick Mc., Miamisberg, OH

Brine cured green peppercorns are soft to begin with so you might try those. Dried peppercorns will soften after being cooked for a long time. Most importantly, purchase good quality peppercorns, such as Tellicherry and Lampong.

Is there an ingredient you can add to something to remove excess salt?
Francine M., Newton, PA

Rumor has it that if you have oversalted soup, then adding raw potato to it will draw some of the excess salt from the liquid into the potato (then you discard the potato). However, I have never tried this so I cannot speak from experience. If you are making a "liquid" recipe such as soup or stew, then I recommend diluting the liquid with plain water. If you have oversalted a batch of cookies or rice though, then there is nothing you can do.

How do I store cilantro?
G. B., Owings Mills, MD

Set the stems of the cilantro, unwashed, in 1 inch of water in a glass as you would the stems of flowers in a vase. Cover the leaves loosely with plastic bag. Don't cover the glass hermetically or the herbs will rot.

Can you recommend a book which pairs spices and herbs with particular foods?
Laura P., Philadelphia PA

There are several books out there, but one of my favorites that is still in print and available in major bookstores is one which goes way beyond spices and herbs. It is a book entitled, The Encyclopedia of Herbs, Spices & Flavorings: A Cooks' Compendium by Elisabeth Lambert Ortiz. A Dorling Kindersley Book, London, l992.

Why do herbs and spices lose their flavor within a year? Is there a way I can prolong their shelf life?
Thomas D., Thousand Oaks, California.

Unfortunately, nothing in life lasts forever and dried herbs and spices fall victim to light, humidity and heat. Try extending their life by keeping them in a dark cupboard away from heat and humidity. If at all possible, try purchasing them fresh and loose but in tiny quantities, or buy them packaged in 1/4 cup volume containers rather than the larger 1/2 cup volume bottles. Finally, before you toss the ones you think are hopeless, heat an iron skillet and add the herbs or spices just for a couple of seconds to release whatever flavor or aroma is left. If that fails to breathe life into them, then throw them out; they don't have anything left to give to your food.

How important is it to use fresh herbs and seasonings rather than dried?
Brad D.

You'll get a bolder, fresher, more vibrant flavor out of fresh herbs; certain dried herbs like basil, cilantro and parsley lose their aroma and potency rather quickly and thus add little flavor if any. Dried mint though I find acceptable in cooked dishes. When you use fresh herbs in cooking, be sure to add them at the end of cooking time and to heat them briefly; when cooked for a long time, fresh herbs lose their vibrancy as well.

What is ancho chili paste and/or powder?
Debra A. Victorville, CA

Ancho chili powder or paste is a ground powder or paste made from ancho chilis which are essentially dried fresh green poblano chilis, often used in Mexican cuisine for stuffing. Dried anchos are sold whole, seeded and ground into a powder or mixed with a liquid of some sort to create a paste. The powder and paste would be sold in stores or areas in the country where Southwest and Mexican cuisine are a big hit. Otherwise, it is a lot simpler to find whole ancho peppers; I see them in all sorts of simple and sophisticated markets. To turn the dried ones into a powder, remove the seeds and in a coffee or spice grinder, pulverize the dried pulp until it is finely ground into a powdery substance.

Will substituting table salt for kosher salt alter the recipe for bagels?
Irene W., Aiea, HI

Kosher or "coarse" salt is a square shaped grain sea salt with a natural iodine. Table salt is a finely ground free flowing type of salt to which dehydrators are added so the salt doesn't clump up. Because table salt is finer grained, start out by substituting half the amount for Kosher salt.

Why do recipes for cakes and cookies call for salt and can I omit the salt in these recipes?

Most recipes, even sweet ones call for a pinch of salt just to bring out the flavors of all the other ingredients. It is astonishing what a small amount of salt does for a recipe. You can omit the pinch of salt in cakes or cookies, but don't be surprised if they taste a bit flat.

How is garlic powder different from garlic salt and can I use them interchangeably?
Troy N. D., Jonesboro, AR

Garlic powder consists of ground dried garlic flakes and garlic salt just has salt added to the garlic powder. If you use garlic salt instead of garlic powder, be sure to adjust how much salt you use in the rest of the recipe.

What is the equivalent of one vanilla bean compared to artificial vanilla extract?
Alex V., Houston, TX

I'm a bit confused by this one, but here goes. First of all there is a difference between artificial and real vanilla extract, however, in recipes, they are meant to be exchanged, measure for measure. I think the real extract tastes better because it does not have anything artificial. There is no way to measure the vanilla bean again the extract, even if we are talking about real thing, and I'll tell you why. Vanilla bean is like a bark which is wrapped around tiny vanilla seeds. The tiny seeds impart flavor as does the bark itself. The vanilla bean can be used whole, or have a tiny 1/4 inch cut off and used in a recipe. How fresh the bean is determines how much you use, so if the vanilla bean is moist and pliable, you'll need less; if it is dried out you might need to use half the bean to get any flavor out of it. Also the bean is used in different types of preparations - you use the seeds to perfume homemade vanilla ice cream; or the bean is used to perfume fruit compotes; even the pod, scraped clean of its seeds can be stuck in a jar of sugar to create homemade vanilla sugar. So.. this is a rather roundabout way of saying the extract and pod can't be measured against each other.

Where can I get cilantro and what can I substitute for it when I can't find it?
Michiko H., White Plains, NY

An Asian-owned produce market will carry cilantro as will Hispanic stores. Good gourmet stores with a fresh produce section will carry cilantro as well. If you can't get it, then substitute flat leaf parsley which is not at all the same in flavor but will bring a fresh bright herb taste to your dish.

What is Kosher salt?
Leslie S., Carson City NV

Kosher salt, which should be available is large red cardboard boxes in the supermarket, is a type of coarse grained salt which has no additives. It is called "kosher" because it is used by orthodox religious Jews in the preparation of Kosher meats.

Is it acceptable to substitute parsley for cilantro in a recipe?
Stephanie S., Macomb, IL

Absolutely. In fact fresh parsley this is the herb of choice to substitute for cilantro when one does not like the taste of cilantro. However if you like a fresher distinctive flavor, then try substituting half fresh mint and half parsley.

What are non-pareil" capers?
Ralph P., Endicott, NY

"Non pareil" are French words which mean, literally, "without equal". In relation to capers, they refer to the small pickled capers which originate from Provence, France. Because they are considered "the best" this variety is named "nonpareil".

What herbs are in "herbes de Provence"?

"Herbes de Provence" is a mix of dried herbs grown in summer in Provence, a region in Southern France. What is included varies from mix to mix and cook to cook. Most of the pre-mixed combos will include at the very least, marjoram, rosemary, summer savory and thyme. Some add basil, fennel seed, oregano or sage. And the most authentic ones will include lavender, the most distinctive and aromatic seasoning "herb" of Southern France.

What is tarragon?
S. S., Irvine, CA

Tarragon is an herb which I adore and is used a lot in French cuisine. I think I love it so and use it much because I grew up in Belgium where the cuisine is close, although not identical to that of France. The tarragon plant has long narrow leaves which grown on a slender stalk. The leaves have a distinctive flavor which is slightly sharp and peppery with anise overtones. It is available dried as well, but the dried variety quickly loses its aroma. If you have a bottle of dried tarragon on your shelves, open it up and sniff. If it smells of nothing or dusty, throw it out because it will add nothing to your cooking. Use fresh or dried tarragon sparingly because a little bit goes far in perfuming your recipes. The French love it with chicken and fish and it is the characteristic flavor in the classic haute cuisine butter sauce "Bearnaise".

What can I substitute for salt to season food?
Robert F., Yonkers, NY

I remember many years ago, when Craig Claiborne, then food critic of The New York Times, went on a serious salt-reducing diet, he claimed that citrus juice, fresh pepper and herbs were a great compensator for the loss of salt. I recommend though that to get used to less salt in your food do so gradually and slowly over time. Just add a little bit less salt to your food over days and weeks. Add fresh pepper instead in larger quantities if you like spicy hot food. Otherwise, sprinkle your dishes, at the end of cooking time, with fresh lemon or lime juice and add lots of chopped fresh herbs as well.

Grains, Nuts & Seeds

What are "pine nuts" and where can I find them?
Joanne R., Alliance, OH

Also known as the "Indian nut," "pinon," "pignoli," "pine kernel," and "pignolia," this high-fat nut comes from several varieties of pine trees. Pine nuts are located inside the pine cone, which generally must be heated to facilitate their removal. This labor-intensive process is what makes pine nuts so expensive. Pine nuts have a thin shell that covers an ivory colored meat and have a rich distinctive flavor. Pine nuts grow in China, Italy, Mexico, North Africa, and the Southwester United States.

There are two main vanities of pine nuts: the "Mediterranean" or "Italian pine nut," and the "Chinese pine nut." The Italian pine nut is from the stone pine and is the more expensive of the two. It is torpedo-shaped and has a light, delicate flavor. The Chinese pine nut is shaped like a squat triangle and its pungent pine flavor can easily overpower some foods. You can find Italian pine nuts in bulk in nut shops and health food stores, and packaged in many gourmet grocers and supermarkets. The Chinese variety are more likely to be found in Asian markets.

Because of their high-fat content, pine nuts turn rancid quickly. They should be stored air-tight in the refrigerator for up to 3 months, frozen for up to 9 months. You can use pine nuts in a variety of sweet and savory dishes. Pine nuts are best known for their flavorful addition to the classic Italian pesto.

What is spelt berry?
Mike C. Oceanside, CA

Spelt is an ancient cereal grain that is native to southern Europe. It was widely grown until the beginning of the 20th century, but can be difficult to find now. I recommend that you check your local health food store if you are having trouble locating it. After threshing, spelt is cooked like rice and can be found as an ingredient in certain country soups, especially in Provence. Spelt has a mellow nutty flavor, and spelt flour can be substituted for wheat flour in baked goods.

In show #MF6680 they were talking about quinoa. The foods that they were showing looked good but my wife and I have no idea what quinoa is or where to get it. Can you help us out? What substitutions could you make?
Roy B. Oregon, MO

Quinoa was a staple of the Incas and was known as "the mother grain" in ancient times and is known as a "supergrain" in modern times. It is tiny, ivory-colored and bead-shaped, cooks like rice but in half the time and expands to 4 times its size. High in protein and iron, quinoa can be found packaged as a grain, ground into flour and in several forms of pasta. The flavor is delicate and has been compared to couscous with a slightly bitter aftertaste. To remove the bitter taste you need only to rinse the quinoa in a sieve before cooking. Quinoa can be found in almost all health food stores and in some supermarkets. Given the basically bland taste of quinoa, rice and couscous are often very good substitutes.

What proportion of rice to liquid should be used in making soup so that the soup is not too thick?
Peggy C., Huntington Beach, CA

This depends upon the type of soup you are making. If you are making a soup in which the cooked rice is part of a series of other ingredients, then I recommend you use 1/2 cup uncooked long grain rice for every 4 to 6 cups of liquid and 3 to 4 cups of other solid ingredients. If, however, you are adding rice to thicken a soup which you are going to puree, then 1/4 to 1/3 cup of uncooked long grain rice is enough to thicken 4 to 5 cups of liquid along with 3 cups of other solids.

Is it better to use all purpose flour, rather than semolina, for fresh pasta made at home?
Alan S., Nijmegen, The Netherlands

You are right, if you are looking for a very tender soft noodle, then make the fresh dough with all purpose unbleached flour. If, however, you want something sturdier, then use half allpurpose and half semolina or hard durumwheat flour.

Where can I find almond paste and can I make it from scratch?
Panida L., Liverpool, NY

Almond paste is a mixture of glycerin, sugar and very finely ground blanched almonds. You can find it in 6 ounce tube packages or 8 ounce cans and any high quality supermarket, gourmet shop or mail order food catalog. The most commonly available brand is "Solo" almond paste, sold in an 8ounce can. Be sure you don't confuse almond paste with marzipan which is a candy made from almond paste and sugar. Yes you can make almond paste at home but it takes some work. There is a good recipe for how to make almond paste in older editions of the Joy of Cooking. Check out a copy in the library.

When a recipe calls for "sifted flour," do you sift the flour and then measure it or measure it first and then sift?
Jack K., New York, NY

You knew the answer all along; you sift first, then measure. In general, the accepted convention in recipe writing is that you follow the logic of the words. So when a recipe says "1 cup sifted flour" you sift first, but had the recipe been written in the following way, " 1 cup flour, sifted", then you would measure the flour, then sift.

What is the difference between bread and all purpose flour?
Nicholas W., Oreland, PA.

All purpose flour is made from a blend of flours milled from both hard wheat and soft wheat. Hard wheat produces a high gluten flour, whereas soft wheat produces a low gluten flour. In yeast breads you want to use a bread flour that is high in gluten so that it develops the characteristic stretchy chewy texture. In cakes though, you don't want a chewy crumb, but a crumbly tender one, so cake flour or low gluten flour is used. All purpose flour, as its name implies, is in fact used in all baking, because it has that medium stretch. Bread flour though is used only for yeast bread making and, in addition to the fact that it is made of high gluten hard wheat flour, it includes a tiny amount of malted barley flour and potassium bromate to both improve the yeast activity and the dough's elasticity .

What is Seitan?
Brittney J., Red Bank, NJ

Seitan is a meat analogue. It is made from wheat gluten and meant to taste like meat. There are other meat analogues made from other vegetable proteins, usually soy. Seitan and other meat analogues are sold in health food stores.

Help! Where can I get medium or short grain rice for rice pudding?
Howard O., White Plains, NY

I have found medium and short grain rice in my local supermarket, but probably because I live in a neighborhood with a large Hispanic population. You can find medium or short grain rice in Hispanic, Asian and health food stores (be sure it is polished, not brown), but often it is packaged in huge 25 pound bags. An alternative is to buy a small bag or box of imported Italian Arborio rice. It is more expensive, but you won't be left with a gigantic amount of a type of rice you don't need.

Where can I find a pasta tool my grandmother calls a "troc"?
Joe P., Poughquaq, NY

This question intrigued me so much, I spent a lot of time researching, but have come up with scant information. I researched the tool, under pasta making tools, rolling pins and cutting tools in The WellTooled Kitchen, by Fred Bridges and Jean F. Tibbetts. Under cutting tools, I came up with an axleheld pastry cutter known as the "lattice cutter". This cuts dough into even strips of dough used for crisscross lattice pie toppings; I guess you could use it for pasta, but it certainly does not go by the name "troc" (or something like that). Then I looked a rolling pins and came up with several odd looking ones which looked a bit like the one you describe but are known as "lefse" "hardtack" and "basketweave" rolling pins. The first two are designed to score or notch Scandinavian flatbread doughs and the last one is to use on sheets of marzipan. The "lefse" has a "long ribbed face" and "scores the surface of a flatbread dough so that it rises evenly when cooked." The "hardtack" rolling pin is also used to score another type of Scandinavian dough so that it does not rise and bakes flat. These rolling pins, however, do appear to cut through dough as would the lattice cutter. And finally I researched such a tool in all my fresh pasta cookbooks . All those writers describe cutting noodles by hand, with a knife and they do not describe a cutting tool. I know this is not the most satisfying answer, but the best I could come up with. It almost sounds as if you are describing a hand held tool which accomplishes what do the cutting blades of a pasta machine.

Am I doing anything wrong if my yeast dough continues to rise in the refrigerator?
R. E. I., Simi Valley, CA

You did not do anything wrong; yeast continues to act when cold; it just acts more slowly. If your dough did not continue to rise in the fridge, it would be dead and your bread would come out of the oven flat and leaden. Only too much heat kills yeast which is why once the dough is in the oven it doesn't rise anymore.

Why is the French bread to which I added too much water so much better than the original recipe?
Randy B., Ridgecrest CA

Well Randy did not really ask me a question as much as explain that one day, accidentally, he added way too much water to a bread dough, continued with the recipe, the risings, etc. and he got the best bread ever. Guess what, I am not surprised. I bet that the bread doughs to which you added more water have lovely pockets of air and a light texture to the crumb in addition to a great crust. Even when I am making pie crusts on I always tell my viewers that a major mistake is to add too little water to the dough rather than too much; with too little water, the crust is dense and hard to roll out.

Don't get too mad at cookbook writers though because you've discovered by accident what many of us try to tell people over and over again food, cooking and baking is not an exact science. Atmosphere, temperature, different sized pots, quality of ingredients all have a profound effect on the outcome of a recipe. While it is true that cookbook writers admonish you to stick to critical measurements in baking, they are usually referring to cake and delicate pastry making which is a lot less forgiving than is bread making. And finally as to your pizza dough, you might want to play with high gluten or bread flour as well as playing with adding more water to the dough. Good luck you sound like a terrific baker who has great instincts and isn't afraid to experiment. Bravo, you're my kind of cook!

Does rinsing rice get rid of some of the calories?
Alina V., Adelphi MD

First of all you need only to rinse rice which has been coated with starch or imported rice like basmati rice from India. "Enriched" rice should never be rinsed because you are rinsing off the vitamins and minerals. Your question though is whether or not you are ridding the rice of some calories because it gives off starch when you rinse it. I have no idea, but if you are, you are diminishing the calories in a negligible amount. A cup of cooked rice is 150 calories.

What is a candlenut?
Jim P., Chicago, IL.

Candlenut is the name of a tropical nut used in Malaysian cuisine. It derives its peculiar name from the fact that the oil of the nut is also used to make candles. Candlenuts are available only roasted, whole or in pieces, because raw they are highly toxic. You might be able to purchase them in a good Indian market which carries a wide array of exotic ingredients used in the cuisine of India as well that of Southeast Asia. However, if you can't, don't despair and substitute in your satay either blanched almonds, brazil or unsalted macadamia nuts. The function of the candlenut in satays or curries is to flavor and thicken so these other nuts are really acceptable.

What is a bialy?
Debbi H.

What puzzles me is why this term appears in your "Fat Free Cooking" cookbook. A "bialy" is merely a chewy crusty flat round roll with an indentation in the center for a dab onions which are placed in the middle before baking. This roll is part of Jewish cuisine.

What are panko bread crumbs?
Frank C.

Don't get mad at me - this is a John Ash thing, these panko bread crumbs. I have looked up this term in his cookbooks without discovering an answer. However, I do recall seeing one of his shows where he describes them as dried fluffy breadcrumbs, imported from Japan and available at a health food store. I have not found them in my neighborhood, but I believe John likes them so much because they yield a lighter airy crumbed product once baked or cooked. I suggest, as a substitute for these to use rather than boxed dried bread crumbs, you remove the crusts of a good white bread and tear or crumb the bread in a food processor. Then spread the crumbs on a baking sheet and let dry overnight at room temperature, or dry out in a 200 degree oven for 10 minutes. You want them dry, but still airy and fluffy. Only prepare what you need because they are hard to store. If you store them in the fridge, they will become moist again; if you store them in an airtight container at room temperature, they will turn moldy.

How do I keep my rice from turning mushy and pasty?
Kathy K., State College, PA

First of all Kathy, you don't need to rinse your rice unless you know it has been coated with talc. (Supermarket varieties and boxed types are not; no need to rinse) If you buy parboiled rice (Uncle Ben's converted) and cook it carefully you should have fluffy tender rice. I cook my rice in less water than is recommended and for less time as well. So for every 1 cup of long grain rice, I use 1 & 3/4 cups of water rather than the usual 2 cups which are recommended. I also start to see if my rice is done after 15 minutes. If it is still somewhat uncooked in the center, I let it go for another minute or 2 and keep on testing carefully every minute after that. The minute it is cooked, remove it from the heat, uncovered to let the steam escape.

Another absolute safe method is to cook the rice as you would noodles, in more water than it can absorb. Then, after 16 or 17 minutes of boiling, check to see if it is tender, then drain all excess water off. This lass method is less nutritious but guaranteed it not be too watery and mushy.

What is brioche bread and what can I substitute for it?
Chihiro B. Honolulu, Hawaii

Brioche is a French bread, rich in butter and eggs. I can't remember why I used it on my show, probably to "uplift" a sandwich from the ordinary into the spectacular. For sandwiches, French toast or bread pudding even, you can substitute another type of egg bread. Sorry, but I am not familiar with your butter top bread.

Pantry Ingredients

I live in Houston, TX and have tried to find "00" flour all over the city to make fresh pasta. This is the type of flour most often recommended for making pasta with flour and eggs. I cannot find it anywhere. Can you help?
Joyce C., Houston, TX

You may want to try asking for a durum wheat flour called semolina instead--which may be "00" flour's more common name. Most good pasta is made from semolina. Durum wheat is more coarsely ground than normal wheat flours, a result that is often obtained by sifting out the finer flour. If you have no luck at a local gourmet store such as Rice Epicurean you may want to try a mail order company such as King Arthur Flour. Their toll-free number should be listed with toll-free information.

I have some English recipes and I have also noticed that on Two Fat Ladies they use something called caster sugar. What is it? Can a substitute for it be found here in the U.S.?
Sharon F., Leominster, MA

Caster Sugar is another term for superfine sugar. It is ground more fine than regular granulated but not as fine as confectioners sugar. The most distinctive quality of superfine sugar is that it dissolves instantly, which makes it a great bartenders tool. The great thing is it can make your own in a food processor by grinding granulated sugar to the desired consistency. Superfine sugar can also be substituted cup for cup with granulated sugar.

What is cracked wheat?
Lillie, Heathsville, VT

Wheat is thought to have been culitivated for at least 6,000 years. It's known as the world's largest cereal grass crop - second only to rice. Though there are over 30,000 varieties of wheat, the three major types are hard wheat, soft wheat and durum wheat. Cracked wheat is a whole wheat berry which is broken into coarse, medium and fine fragments. It is generally sold in health food stores.

I have come across several recipes that call for pastry flour, and I can't seem to find it in any market. Can you help?
Steve V., Simi Valley, CA

Most resources list pastry flour as the same as cake flour but this is not entirely true. Technically pastry flour is not quite as soft or starchy as cake flour and is lower in protein than all-purpose flour. Both cake and pastry flour produce flaky pastries and tender cookies. If you are unable to find pastry flour, substitute cake flour cup for cup.

The chefs use sea salt n several shows that we have watched. Do you know where I can buy some?
Linnie B. Malvern, IA

Salt is an item which we truly take for granted. However, Roman soldiers used it as a means of exchange and it was considered a prize possession until the late 19th century when it became more plentiful. The original type of salt passed down throughthe ages was sea salt. Sea salt is an additive-free sodium chloride created by evaporating sea water. It can be found in fine grain as well as large crystals. Check with your local supermarket, health food store and middle eastern or Kosher convenience stores.

In one of the recipes Castor Sugar was called for. What is this?
Kathryn H., Sylmar, CA

Castor sugar is the British name for superfine sugar in the US. Superfine sugar is more finely granulated than regular white sugar. It dissolves much faster as a result, which makes it perfect for making meringues and ice tea. Dominos manufactures a superfine sugar.

It is difficult to tell a good olive oil by its package. What is the best way to shop for olive oil?
Chris L., MO

There are four different types of olive oil.

1. Extra virgin--oil is extracted without heat, passes through 8-12 tasters giving a rating of 6.5% or higher. It is free of fatty acids and made from sound, fresh olives harvested at the peak of freshness.

2. Virgin (semi-fine)--oil is extracted mechanically without heat. It is essentially free of fatty acids.

3. Olive oil--blend of refined olive oils, extraction process includes heat, varies in flavor, color and price.

4. Olive pomace oil--extracted by chemical solvents, poor quality product.

One and two have a strong flavor and are best used for dressing or recipes where olive flavor is desired.

Three has a more neutral taste and is best used for sauteing or as a fat when a strong olive flavor and aroma is undesirable.

Four has a bitter taste known as fusty (associated with oxidation).

What is the difference between a black and a green olive? Is a green olive an unripe black olive?
Judy Z., Rochester, NY

The variety of olives is numbered in the dozens and vary in size, flavor and color. All fresh olives are bitter in taste and the final flavor and color of the fruit depends upon when it is picked and how it is processed. Unripe olives are always green, but ripe olives can be either green or black. The Mission olive or common black olive is a green olive that derives its color and flavor from lye curing and the addition of oxygen. Olives that ripen on the tree turn dark brown or black naturally. Most of these olives are used in the production of olive oil. Many are brine cured and sold to eat out of hand.

What is cream of tartar and what should it be used for?
Songie M., Chicago, IL

Cream of tartar or tartaric acid is a natural component of grapes. This fine white powder is created by utilizing leftover particles from wine production. Crystalline acid deposits form on the inside walls of wine barrels, these deposits are purified and tartaric acid is pulverized into a fine powder.

Common uses of cream of tartar include: egg cookery, baking and candy making. Tartaric acid added to eggs lowers the ph and therefore accelerates coagulation, in other words the eggs will cook faster. When added to egg whites it acts as a stabilizer and creates more volume as well.

It is also added to baking soda to create baking powder. I like to add it to boiling water when cooking cauliflower. It preserves the white color.

When a recipe calls for vinegar, how do you know if it means cider or white vinegar?
Gloria J., Pioneer, CA

Generally speaking when a recipe doesn't specify, vinegar - means white vinegar or white wine vinegar.

What is cream of tartar and where can I find it?
Frankie, New York, NY

Cream of tartar is a white crystalline powder used in beating egg whites to stabilize their volume. It is also used commercially in frosting mixes and can be part of a baking powder mix. Cream of tartar is nothing more than the fine crystal deposits found on the inside of wine barrels. It is packaged by spice and dried herb manufacturers and can be found among the dried herbs and spices in your local supermarket.

What is shortening and when should I use it in baking?
Nenny B., NY, NY

Shortening refers to solid fats and oils used in baking as well as in cooking. Shortening made from vegetable oils is referred to as vegetable shortening whereas shortening made from pork fat is known as lard. Shortening is used in pie making because it yields a flaky rather than a cookielike "short" crust as would butter. However, if you like the flavor of butter than substitute 25 % butter for 25 % of the shortening. Lard, which also yields a flaky pie crust, imparts its own wonderful distinctive flavor and is my shortening of choice in pie making because it is so easy to work with. Shortenings are also used in other baked goods for a variety of reasons. Commercially, cookies and cakes are made with shortening because it is so much cheaper than butter. In homebaking books, however, perhaps the recipe was originally made with shortening for reasons of economy and was handed down, written that way, from generation to generation. It is safe to substitute melted butter for shortening in cakes and cookies, but don't in pie baking, unless you are looking for a cookie like crust as is common in French freestanding fruit tarts.

What is the difference between lima and fava beans and are they interchangeable?
Allison B., Sunnyvale, CA

Fava beans are tan, flat beans which resemble lima beans. However the favas have a very strong flavor, quite bitter at times. Their skins are very tough and must be removed by blanching before you cook them. Favas are popular in Middle Eastern and Mediterranean recipes. They are usually sold dried and can, sometimes, be purchased in cans in stores which specialize in a Middle Eastern clientele. They are sold fresh in specialty produce stores, but take a lot of work to get to the fresh beans.
Lima beans come in 2 varieties; the Fordhook and the baby lima. The Fordhook is meatier and fatter than the baby limas with has a bolder flavor. Fresh limas can be found sometimes in June, July and August. They should be shelled just before using. Dried limas are available year round as are frozen ones. You can substitute dried limas for dried fava beans but the don't have the characteristic unique flavor of the fava beans.

What is black pasta?
J. A., Kutztown, PA

Real black pasta is a regular pasta dough to which squid ink has been added. That ink colors the pasta black and gives it a faint seafood taste. If your daughter was served regular looking pasta when she ordered black pasta, she was cheated out of a great treat!

What is the sediment on the bottom of a bottle of extra virgin olive oil and is it bad?
Joe C., Chicago, IL

Without seeing the sediment, it is hard to tell. However, when olive oil has been chilled (e.g. set in the refrigerator) some of the oil congeals into white specks; those specks disappear as the oil comes back to room temperature. If there are other types of sediment, I would discard the batch of olive oil. You can also tell, by the way, if the oil is rancid, just by tasting it. It will taste distinctly off and rancid when it has turned.

What is tahini and is there a substitute?
Christy C., Torrance, CA

Tahini is a thick paste of ground raw sesame seeds and is used in Middle Eastern cooking. There is not substitute. However if you can't find it, then try to make small batches of it at home by blending raw sesame seeds with a neutral flavored vegetable oil.

Please define brown sugar, molasses, corn syrup and rice syrup?
Laxmi P., New York, NY

Molasses is a syrupy brownish black liquid which remains after sugar crystals are extracted from boiling the juices of sugar cane or sugar beets. Light molasses remains after the first boiling and after a second boiling, a darker, less sweet and thicker mixture remains and that is called dark molasses. Blackstrap molasses comes from a third boiling; it is very thick and not sweet at all.

Brown sugar is white granulated sugar to which molasses is added. The molasses gives brown sugar its more pliable texture and brown color.

Corn syrup is a sweet liquid made from cornstarch processed with acids or enzymes and rice syrup is a sweet liquid made from rice.

What is balsamic vinegar and why is it so popular?
Joseph E M., Wichita, KS

Balsamic vinegar is Italian and is made from the Trebbiano grape. It has a distinctive sweet pungent flavor which comes from aging it, over years, in several barrels made of different types of woods and in graduating sizes. There are some balsamic vinegar's which are 200 years old and as prized as vintage Port wines. The reason I think it is so popular is that it has a natural sweetness which people love. It is also less acidic than regular wine vinegar's so you can use a bit more of the vinegar and less of the oil in salad dressings. In Manhattan, balsamic vinegar is so popular, I can find it just about any of my local supermarkets and grocery stores. You, however, may have to search for it in gourmet shops such as Williams Sonoma located in many malls across the U.S.

What is gianduja?
Bridget B., Baltimore, MD

Gianduja (geeandouya) refers to a couple of things: it is a little known chocolate and crushed hazelnut and lady finger pudding from the Piedmont region of Italy, but more commonly it refers to a soft creamy milk and hazelnut paste candy.

What is superfine sugar and can I use something instead?
Tracy R., Wayne, PA

Superfine sugar is granulated sugar ground so fine it "dissolves" almost instantly in cold liquid. Regular granulated sugar needs heat to dissolve it. Instant or superfine sugar is an advantage in recipes such as a berry fruit salad where you want the sweetness without the granulated texture of sugar. Confectioner's sugar is an acceptable substitute in some instances where the cornstarch added to the confectioner's sugar isn't intrusive. You can simulate a superfine sugar by whirling regular sugar in a food processor until it is more finely granulated.

Why do I get "raw" taste when using confectioners sugar in frostings and icings?
Joanie D., Lee's Summit, MO

I think the unfinished taste you perceive is the slight amount of cornstarch (3 percent) that is added to powdered sugar to prevent it from clumping.

What is kosher salt?
Gwen S., San Luis Obispo, CA

Kosher salt is a coarsegrained salt which is additivefree. Table salt is a finegrained salt that has additives to help prevent it from clumping. Kosher salt is used in the preparation of Kosher meats and is preferred by sophisticated cooks who likes its flavor and coarse texture.

When do I use black pepper and when do I use white pepper?
Sue T., Wichita, KS

Black peppercorns come from unripe green berries left to ferment before drying so the flavor is powerful. White peppercorns come from ripe red berries which are soaked to facilitate removing their skin. It is interesting to note that there are many different types of both black and white peppercorns and their flavors vary depending upon where they are grown. White pepper is used in white sauces or cream soups because they are less visible. Black pepper in white sauces can be confused with tiny specks of dirt.

How to I prevent my pasta from getting sticky?
Deborah L., Chicago, IL

To prevent dried pasta from getting sticky you must use enough water (4 quarts per/pound of pasta) and use pasta made from 100% durum wheat semolina. Sometimes low quality fresh pasta sticks together. For fresh pasta, make sure you boil it enough water (same proportions as for dried pasta) and be sure you cook it long enough. Except in the case of cooking pasta for salads, don't ever rinse your pasta after it is done or you will chill it.

Is honey an acceptable substitute for sugar in baking?
Marsha K., Baltimore, MD

One can substitute honey for sugar in some baking, but you also need to compensate for the fact that sugar is a solid form of sugar and less sweet than honey, a liquid form of sugar. In baking breads and rolls you may substitute honey for sugar, measure for measure, e.g. 1 cup honey for 1 cup sugar. When baking cakes and cookies, substitute 7/8 cup (14 tablespoons) honey for each cup of sugar but you must also reduce the liquid called for in the recipe. For each cup of honey, reduce the liquid in the original recipe by 3 tablespoons of liquid. Also, if the original recipe does not call for a soured dairy product such as sour cream or buttermilk, add a pinch of baking soda to the recipe to neutralize the acidity of the honey. There are some other changes that occur when you substitute honey for sugar. The flavor is different because honey brings its own character to the recipe. Take care not to use very dark honey because its flavor can be overwhelming. There are advantages in substituting honey for sugar in cakes, cookies and breads; they will be chewier, browner and have better keeping properties.

How long does caviar keep and for how long can I store it after opening the jar?
Madge S., Moon, PA

Unfortunately, fresh caviar is extremely perishable and should be eaten within a day of opening the jar. Fresh caviar should be kept refrigerated until serving, and will keep, unopened, for several months if refrigerated at 26 degrees F. Stored at degrees above that it spoils very rapidly; this is why caviar is served in its tin, set in ice.

Pasteurized or pressed caviar is less perishable but still should be eaten within 2 to 3 days of opening the jar. Caviar should not be rinsed before eating and if the caviar has spoiled, rinsing won't save it.

What is chestnut flour and can I substitute it for other flours, measure for measure?
John MacV., Syracuse, NY

Chestnut flour is used primarily in Italian and Hungarian cake and pastry making. The chestnut flour used in Italian cakes and pancakes is made from pulverized raw chestnuts, whereas in Hungary it is made from dried chestnuts, with very different results. Given that chestnut flour doesn't have the gluten that does wheat flour, I would not recommend you substitute it for wheat flour, measure for measure. However, you can begin to experiment if you substitute half chestnut flour for wheat flour and see how happy you are with the results.

How is a relish different from a chutney?
Mary G., Boynton Beach, FL

A relish describes a pickled or preserved spicy savory condiment. A chutney is an Indian spicy fruit condiment which tastes sweet and sour and ranges from mild to very hot. In menu marketing though, the words "relish" "chutney" and "salsa" are used rather loosely and interchangeably to describe just about any type of fresh or preserved condiment the chef is serving that day.

What is turbinado sugar?
Kathleen B.,Tulsa, OK

Turbinado sugar is raw sugar which has been steamed cleaned. A lot of good that does you, right? Let me explain. Sugar is a highly refined substance which comes from cane or beet sugar and raw sugar is what is left after the sugar cane has been processed and refined. Raw sugar though has lots of impurities which must be removed for the raw sugar to be edible thus the steam cleaning. However, you should know that the taste of Turbinado sugar is similar to light brown sugar which is what I suggest you substitute if you can't find the turbinado.

After you open the bottle, is it typical for truffle oil to lose its aroma?
Vasna A., Boulder CO.

Even though it is recommended you keep oils in a dark cool cabinet, I always keep oils I rarely use in the fridge. I have been keeping my truffle oil in the fridge and it has not lost its aroma. Next time, try storing it in the fridge; it does cloud up a bit, but that dissipates, once you bring the oil back to room temperature.

How do I substitute cake yeast for dry yeast?
Al L., Wichita, Ks

According to the Joy of Cooking's table of substitutions, for each package of cake yeast (3/5 oz or 2 tablespoons) reconstitute in 2 tablespoons of water, 1 & 3/4 tablespoons of dry yeast and decrease the liquid in the recipe by 2 tablespoons.

Does white chocolate have caffeine?
Donna B., Union, New Jersey

No because white chocolate is made of cocoa butter and corn syrup; it does not contain any cocoa powder, where all the chocolate flavor and "caffeine" resides. I agree with you that carob, which is used as a chocolate substitute in "health foods" has no relationship to chocolate flavor and basically has no taste. And as to why they can't make decaffeinated chocolate? I think the cost of decaffeinating it is not worth it; there probably is not enough of a market demand. I also do not know really how much caffeine is in an ounce of chocolate; it probably is not enough to disturb most people.

Does vinegar help you lose weight?
Rex M., Richardson, TX

Only when you use it, as you do, as a substitute for or as partial replacement for oil in salad dressings. Whatever calories you are not consuming by using less oil is the extent to which it will help you lose weight. As to whether or not it "screws up your metabolism" - I think someone's pulling your leg!

Where can I get crystallized ginger?
Lisa W. no address

You can buy crystalli